45. The Fallacy of the Accident and Its Deceptions

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Lecture Notes

Main Topics #

The Fallacy of the Accident (Fallacia Accidentis) #

• Also called “the mistake of mixing up the as such with what happens”
• Confuses what belongs to something through itself (per se) with what happens to belong to it accidentally (per accidens)
• Thomas Aquinas’s observation: this fallacy “deceives even the wise”
• Operates in two domains: language/words and in things themselves

The Paradox of the Accidental #

• Something can be necessarily present while remaining accidentally related to the supposed effect
• The accidental is not the cause, though it is always there
• Example: In Berkeley’s idealism, “in the mind” is necessarily present in all knowledge but is accidental to what the thing actually is
  • When defining a square, we don’t include “in the mind” in the definition, though our knowing must occur in the mind
• This appears paradoxical: how can something necessarily present not be responsible for the property?

The Distinction: Per Se vs. Per Accidens #

• Per se (as such/through itself): What belongs to something by virtue of its nature or essence
• Per accidens (by happening/accidentally): What happens to belong to something but is not part of its nature
• This distinction is foundational to avoiding the fallacy

Key Arguments #

The Malaria/Marsh Air Example #

• Initial belief: Marsh air causes malaria
• The fallacy: People observed that those exposed to marsh air got malaria; those who avoided it did not
• The correction: It is not the marsh air as such that causes malaria, but the mosquitoes in the marsh air
• Deeper correction: It may not even be the mosquitoes as such, but something (a microorganism) that infects certain mosquitoes
• Lesson: What is necessarily present (the marsh air, the mosquito) may not be the true cause

The Thinking Cap Example #

• The fallacy: Medieval peasants observed professors lecturing while wearing fancy hats
• Their mistaken conclusion: The hat itself enables lecturing
• The truth: The hat is purely accidental—it happens to be present but causes nothing
• Why the deception: Seeing two things always together, people assume one causes the other

Virtue, Fall, and Sin #

• The apparent paradox: “Some by virtue fall, and others by sin arise”
• The fallacy: Thinking virtue as such causes falling, or sin as such causes rising
• The correction:
  • Virtue as such does not cause falling; rather, the pride that might accompany virtue causes the fall
  • Sin as such does not cause rising; rather, the humility one learns from recognizing sin can lead to improvement
  • Pride and humility are accidental to virtue and sin, respectively
• Theological parallel: Augustine on early church virgins who became proud—it would be better if they fell into sin of the flesh to gain humility, which is the true foundation

Socrates and His Enemies #

• The apparent paradox: Socrates helps people by showing them their ignorance, yet this makes enemies
• The fallacy: Thinking that helping another as such is the way to make enemies
• The correction:
  • Helping and doing good are not, as such, ways to create enemies
  • The true cause is the pride of those being helped who resent having their ignorance exposed
  • Pride is accidental to being helped, not essential to it
• The requirement: Those who learn from refutation need the humility of the slave boy (as referenced in Plato’s Meno)
• The problem: Those with reputation and position are less likely to accept correction because they have more to lose

Causation and Association #

• General principle: We often rejoice in something not as such, but because it reminds us of something else
• Example: Hearing a voice on the phone—we rejoice not in the sound itself (which may not be pleasant), but because it signals a friend’s presence
• Musical love: One may love a beloved’s voice not as such, but because it is associated with the person
• Smell and memory: A smell reminds us of a cherished event; we rejoice in the memory, not in the smell as such
• The fallacy: Attributing pleasure or pain to the thing itself when it is really accidental, arising from association

Important Definitions #

Per Se (Through Itself/As Such) #

• What belongs to something by virtue of what it is
• Essential and necessary
• Example: Being rational belongs to man per se

Per Accidens (By Happening/Accidentally) #

• What happens to belong to something contingently
• Not part of the nature or essence
• Example: Being white happens to a man but is not part of being human

Fallacia Accidentis #

• The error of treating what is accidental as though it were essential
• Treating what happens to be present as though it is the true cause

Examples & Illustrations #

From Nature and Medicine #

1. Marsh air and malaria: Marsh air is necessarily present when malaria occurs, but is not the cause—mosquitoes (or parasites within them) are
2. The thinking cap: Fancy hats appear with lecturers, but wearing a hat does not enable lecturing—this is purely accidental
3. Funeral visits: A relative noticed that deaths occurred after his visits; this appeared suspicious but was purely accidental correlation
4. Infection and disease: Not all mosquitoes cause malaria, only those infected with the parasite—the mosquito itself is not as such the cause

From Human Life and Association #

1. Voice recognition: Rejoicing at hearing a beloved’s voice—not the sound as such, but what it signifies
2. Memory and smell: A particular smell triggers pleasant memories; we seem to rejoice in the smell when really we rejoice in the memory
3. Musical associations: One loves a mistress’s voice not necessarily because it is musically pleasant, but because of association
4. Telephone joy: Recognizing a friend’s voice on the phone, we rejoice not in the quality of the sound but in knowing who is calling

From Virtue and Vice #

1. Virtue and pride: A virtuous person may become proud; virtue as such doesn’t cause this, but pride arising from virtue does
2. Sin and humility: Recognizing one’s sin can lead to humility; sin as such doesn’t elevate, but the humility learned from sin does
3. Success and overconfidence: Students who do well on early exams may become overconfident and fail the final exam—success as such doesn’t cause failure, but arrogance does

From Philosophy and Inquiry #

1. Berkeley’s idealism error: “Everything I know is in my mind, therefore I know nothing outside my mind”—“in my mind” is necessarily present in knowledge but accidental to what the thing is
2. Definition of square: We define a square as “equilateral and right-angled quadrilateral” without adding “in the mind,” though our knowledge must be in our mind

From Language #

1. “Natural” in Shakespeare’s Tempest: Caliban is called “a natural monster”—natural (meaning foolish or simple) and unnatural (meaning monstrous) together, showing confusion of different senses
2. “Simple” in multiple uses: Shakespeare complains about “simple truth miscalled simplicity”—simple means (a) uncomplicated, (b) foolish (simpleton), and (c) without parts (as in God is simple). Each sense creates confusion if not distinguished

Notable Quotes #

“The accidental deceives even the wise.” — Thomas Aquinas (cited by Berquist)

“Virtue as such doesn’t make you fall; it’s the pride you might have because of your virtue that makes you fall.”

“It’s not the marsh air as such that is causing this, but it’s the mosquitoes in the marsh air that are causing the malaria.”

“Unless you become like the slave boy, when your mistakes are pointed out, you’ll never get very far in philosophy.”

“It’s really his pride that is the cause of this, rather than you’re helping him. The pride of the man you’re helping is something that happens to your helping him.”

“The accidental plays an enormous role in our life that we’re not going to be aware of sometimes.”

“Seeing this kind of mistake being made makes you more aware, more attentive to the fact that you have to be very careful with the senses of a word.”

Questions Addressed #

How can something be necessarily present but not be the cause? #

• The paradox: In Berkeley’s case, “in the mind” is necessarily present in all knowledge but is accidental to what the thing is
• Resolution: Necessity of presence ≠ causation of the property. The accidental is a necessary condition but not the efficient cause
• Implication: We must carefully distinguish what is always there from what truly causes the effect

Why does the accidental deceive the wise more easily? #

• Because they see patterns: The wise notice that two things are always together and assume causation
• Because correlation misleads: When X is always followed by Y, it appears X causes Y, even if Z is the true cause
• Because pride blocks recognition: Those with reputation and position are less likely to accept that what appears necessary might be accidental

How do we distinguish what is essential from what is accidental in a given situation? #

• By thought experiment: Remove the alleged accidental feature and see if the essential property remains
• By analysis: Ask whether the feature belongs “as such” or “by happening”
• Example: Does virtue as such cause falling? No—remove pride, and virtue alone doesn’t cause falling

What is the relationship between language and the fallacy of accident? #

• Connection: Equivocation in language often produces fallacies of accident in reasoning
• Example: Using “unlimited” in different senses (actual vs. potential infinity) leads to false conclusions about causation
• Caution: Careful attention to word senses helps prevent this fallacy

Connections to Other Topics #

To Berkeley’s Idealism #

• Berkeley argues: “Everything I know is in my mind, therefore I know nothing outside my mind”
• The fallacy: “In the mind” is necessarily present in knowledge but is accidental to what the thing is
• The error: Confusing a necessary condition (knowledge being in the mind) with a property of the thing itself

To Definition and Essence #

• When defining something, we must exclude accidents even though they may be necessarily present in our knowledge
• Example: The definition of square does not include “in the mind” even though our knowledge of it must be in our mind

To Theology and Virtue #

• Augustine on early Christian virgins: Pride is more damaging than sexual sin because it has no obvious correction, whereas fleshly sin at least teaches humility
• The principle: What appears to be the cause (virtue, celibacy) is actually accidental; what is truly operative (pride, humility) is hidden

To Socratic Philosophy #

• Socrates makes enemies not because helping is bad, but because pride in those helped prevents them from accepting correction
• The lesson: Philosophy requires the humility to recognize one’s ignorance, not pride in one’s achievements

Contextual Remarks #

Language and Philosophy #

• Descartes may have been confused about the distinction between “confused” (unclear/indistinct) and “confused” (mistaken)
• Hegel deliberately wrote obscurely, believing that clarity would prevent admiration
• Monsignor Dian observed that Greek is superior to Latin for philosophy, as is English superior to French—language choice is partly accidental to philosophical truth

The Wider Significance #

• This fallacy will appear in Book 1 of the natural philosophy text, where even Plato seems to fall into it
• Understanding this fallacy is essential for avoiding deception in logic, natural science, and theology
• The fallacy is “very common” and pervades much of human life through association and habit