3. The Soul as Principle of Life: Definition and Desirability
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Main Topics #
The Desirability of Knowledge of the Soul #
Knowledge excels when:
- What is known is better (the object of knowledge matters)
- How it is known is more certain (the certainty of knowledge matters)
The soul excels in both respects:
- The soul is the best thing in the material world (superior to all non-living matter)
- We have immediate inward certainty of our own soul (self-evident from our own experience: “I sense, I desire, I think”)
Therefore, knowledge of the soul is infinitely more desirable than knowledge of all other things. As Augustine says: blessed is the man who knows God even if he knows nothing else; blessed also is the man who knows God and other things, but the blessedness comes from knowing God, not from knowing other things.
Definition of Soul in Ancient Understanding #
The ancient Greeks universally agreed on what the word “soul” meant, though they disagreed about what the soul essentially is.
Definition: The soul is the first cause of life within living bodies (ψυχή, anima)
Key points:
- The word “animal” derives from anima (soul), showing life and soul are intimately connected
- “Animate matter” is a synonym for living matter
- Life is understood as self-motion: motion whose cause is within, not external
- This definition is obvious from common experience; the question is what the soul essentially is
The Certainty of Soul-Knowledge #
We are most certain about two aspects of the soul:
That we have a soul - Immediately evident through inward experience
- We sense, desire, think, move ourselves
- More certain of our own soul than of external things
- Example: Descartes’ “I think, therefore I am” reflects this certainty
That some things are alive and some are not - Evident from common experience
- A stone kicked moves, but we don’t call it alive
- A bug stepped on moves itself away; we recognize it as alive
- The difference: self-motion vs. externally-caused motion
However, what the soul is remains difficult to determine, even though that it is remains certain.
The Modern Loss of the Word “Soul” #
Modern Bible translations systematically remove the word “soul”:
- “My soul magnifies the Lord” becomes “My being proclaims the Lord”
- “What does it profit a man to gain the whole world and lose his soul?” becomes “lose himself”
This represents a philosophical catastrophe because:
- Modern people no longer understand what “soul” means
- The word is associated only with Church teaching about the immortal soul, which is not obvious
- Modern experimental science cannot access the soul, so modern scientists deny its reality
- Loss of the word leads to loss of the concept and its philosophical importance
- Yet the Catechism of the Catholic Church still uses the term “soul,” showing its importance to Christian tradition
Key Arguments #
Why the Soul’s Existence is Certain But Its Nature is Unclear #
The Greeks distinguished between:
- Knowledge that the soul exists (obvious from common experience)
- Knowledge what the soul is (difficult and disputed)
Example from Shakespeare’s Much Ado About Nothing:
- Beatrice says: “I’m as sure that she’s innocent as that I have a soul”
- This reflects the Greek understanding: the existence of the soul is as obvious as 2+2=4
- Yet the nature of the soul requires philosophical investigation
The Problem with Modern Understanding #
When moderns hear “soul,” they think only of Christian teaching about the immortal soul, which is:
- Not obvious to everyone
- Not accessible to experimental science
- Therefore dismissed as unreal
But the ancient meaning was simpler and more obvious: the cause of life in living things.
The Four Difficulties in Investigating the Soul #
Difficulty 1: Method of Definition
- Is there one universal method for knowing what a thing is?
- Or does each thing require its own unique method?
- For the soul, the method differs from mathematics
Difficulty 2: Genus of the Soul
- What category does the soul belong to?
- Is it a substance, quality, quantity, ability, or act?
Difficulty 3: Unity or Plurality of Souls
- Is there one definition of soul for all living things?
- Or distinct definitions for plant soul, animal soul, and rational soul?
Difficulty 4: Order of Investigation
- Should we investigate the soul first, or its powers?
- Should we investigate powers first, or their acts?
- Should we investigate acts first, or their objects?
Aristotle’s Resolution (via Thomas): We know in this order:
- Objects (through sensation)
- Acts (through objects: seeing is sensation of color)
- Powers (through acts: ability to see is known through seeing)
- Soul (through powers: the soul is known through its abilities)
Important Definitions #
Soul (ψυχή psyche, anima): The first cause of life within living bodies; what makes a living body alive; the organizing principle of a living thing
Self-motion: Motion whose cause is within the thing moving, not external to it; characteristic of life
Premium (preamble): The introductory section of a philosophical work that establishes the goal, order, and difficulties
Scopus: The target or goal that an author aims at in a work
Animate/Animated matter: Living matter; matter that has a soul
Examples & Illustrations #
The Stone and the Bug #
When you kick a stone, it rolls (motion caused externally). When you step on a bug, it moves away (self-motion). We call one alive and not the other because life involves self-motion—motion caused from within.
The Certainty Comparison #
Beatrice’s statement in Much Ado About Nothing: “I’m as sure that she’s innocent as that I have a soul” parallels saying “I’m as sure as that 2+2=4.” Both express absolute certainty. Just as mathematical truth is obvious, so is the existence of the soul through inward experience.
Why Modern Language Obscures the Soul #
When modern people hear “soul,” they think of Church teaching about immortality (not obvious). But the Greeks simply meant “the cause of life” (obvious). Modern translations remove the word, making the obvious become obscure.
Notable Quotes #
“Miserable the man who knows all other things but doesn’t know God; blessed the man who knows God even if he knows nothing else. Blessed also the man who knows God and other things, but not the more so for knowing other things, but for knowing God alone.” — Augustine (on why knowledge of the best thing matters most)
“Everything else we study, we study for the sake of knowing God. If a man studies other things for the sake of something other than knowing God, unless forced to it by necessity, he’s a pervert.” — Medieval philosopher quoted by Berquist (on the hierarchy of knowledge)
“Thomas says, they study the body so I can know the soul. They study the soul so I can know the angels. Study [the angels] so I can know God.” — Summarizing Aquinas (on the hierarchical structure of philosophical knowledge)
“I’m as sure that she’s innocent as that I have a soul.” — Beatrice, Much Ado About Nothing (reflecting Greek certainty about the soul’s existence)
“You don’t think about something hard enough, it becomes unthinkable.” — National Review (on the danger of neglecting philosophical concepts)
Questions Addressed #
Q: Why did the Greeks have no doubt about the soul’s existence but disagree about its nature? #
A: The Greeks understood “soul” simply as the first cause of life in bodies. This is obvious from common experience: some things are alive, some are not. What is NOT obvious is what the soul essentially is.
Q: How can we be certain of the soul if we can only sense material things? #
A: We experience self-motion, sensation, desire, and thought directly and inwardly. This inward experience is more certain than observation of external things. We are more certain of our own soul’s existence than we are of others’ souls or external objects.
Q: Why is the soul more certain than other things, even though we can’t directly perceive it? #
A: Because we know the soul through its operations (sensing, desiring, thinking, self-motion), which we experience immediately and inwardly. This direct experience gives greater certainty than observation of external objects.
Q: What is the relationship between how certain we are of the soul and how much we know about what it is? #
A: These are separate: (1) We are extremely certain that we have a soul (inward experience). (2) We are uncertain about what the soul essentially is (requires philosophical investigation). Certainty of existence does not equal clarity about nature.