38. Imagination as Motion: Distinguished from Sensation and Opinion

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Lecture Notes

Main Topics #

Imagination Distinguished from Sensation #

• Sensation requires the presence of external objects and functioning sense organs; imagination operates in dreams without these
• Sensation regarding proper sensibles is always true; imagination is frequently false
• Sensation’s certitude vs. imagination’s uncertainty: we say “it appears to me” (imagination) rather than asserting directly (sensation)
• Not all animals possess imagination equally (Aristotle questions whether ants, bees, and worms have it), though all possess sensation

Imagination as Not Opinion or Belief #

• Opinion (doxa) requires conviction (pistis) and persuasion by reason; animals possess imagination but lack reason
• Logical impossibility: one cannot simultaneously hold a true opinion and a contradictory false imagination without abandoning, forgetting, or reasoning away one of them
• Example: The sun appears to be the size of one’s hand, yet one believes it larger than the earth—these cannot both be opinions

Imagination as Not Science or Understanding #

• Demonstrative knowledge (epistēmē) is necessarily true; imagination is often false
• Natural understanding grasps universals immediately; imagination deals with particular sensible images

Imagination as Motion (Kinesis) #

• Imagination is a motion produced by the act of sensation, not sensation itself
• The senses act as a “moved mover”: external objects move the senses, and the senses in turn move something more inward
• This motion persists after sensation ceases but is weaker than the original sensation, resembling it in kind
• Imagination is present in animals possessing sensation but is not identical to sensation

The Three Types of Sensibles and Their Deceptiveness #

• Proper/Private Sensibles (known by one sense alone): color by sight, taste by taste—these are most reliable and least deceiving unless the sense organ is injured or affected
• Common Sensibles (known by multiple senses): shape, size, motion, magnitude—these are more easily deceived than proper sensibles
• Accidental Sensibles (known through reason, not directly by sense): recognizing a friend by appearance, identifying sugar by whiteness; these involve judgment beyond mere sensation
• Deception increases as one moves from proper to common to accidental sensibles

Language and Certainty #

• In English, we distinguish “it appears to me” (uncertain, imaginative) from direct assertion (certain, sensory)
• When we sense clearly, we do not say “it seems”—we assert directly
• The use of “seems,” “appears,” “think,” “imagine” indicates uncertainty and imagination’s operation

Key Arguments #

Aristotle’s Systematic Elimination #

1. Not Sensation: Dreams prove imagination occurs without sensation; sensation of proper objects is always true; imagination is often false
2. Not Opinion: Opinion requires rational persuasion; animals have imagination without reason; contradictory opinions cannot be simultaneously held
3. Not Science or Understanding: These are always true; imagination is often false
4. Not a Combination of Opinion and Sensation: If imagination were opinion based on sensation, one would need two contradictory opinions simultaneously about the same object, which is impossible

The Sun Example (Refutation of Plato) #

• The sun appears to be one foot in diameter (imagination)
• One is convinced the sun is greater than the inhabited earth (opinion)
• These cannot both be opinions because one would require abandoning the other
• They are not held simultaneously as beliefs; rather, imagination opposes opinion

The Equal Lines Example (Optical Illusion) #

• Two equal lines drawn; one appears longer due to added marks
• One has the true opinion that they are equal
• Yet one experiences imagination that one is longer
• This is not a second opinion but imagination contrary to opinion
• Shows imagination’s deceptiveness about common sensibles (shape, magnitude)

The Moved Mover Principle #

• Sensation is a being moved (passive reception) by external objects
• What is moved can also be a mover
• The motion caused by sensation moves something more inward
• This inward motion resembles the sensory motion but is weaker
• Imagination is precisely this weaker, persistent motion within the soul

Important Definitions #

Phantasia (Imagination): A motion (kinesis) produced by the act of sensation; a faculty that retains and presents sensible images in the absence of external objects, characterized by weakness relative to sensation and liability to falsity.

Proper/Private Sensibles (Ἴδια αἰσθητά): Objects of sensation known by a single sense alone (e.g., color by sight, taste by taste); perceived with greatest certitude and minimal deception.

Common Sensibles (Κοινὰ αἰσθητά): Objects known by multiple senses (e.g., shape, size, motion, rest, number); more subject to deception than proper sensibles.

Accidental Sensibles: Objects known not directly by sense but through reason or judgment (e.g., recognizing a friend by appearance, identifying substance by accidents); require cognitive judgment beyond mere sensation.

Moved Mover (Κινούμενον κινοῦν): An entity that is itself moved by an external agent but also moves something else; the senses exemplify this—moved by external objects, they move imagination within.

Pistis (Conviction/Belief): The state of mind required for opinion; involves being persuaded of something, typically through reason.

Examples & Illustrations #

Witness Testimony and Distorted Images #

• Multiple witnesses to a car accident report divergent details if questioned the next day rather than immediately
• Policemen know from experience to record statements immediately while sensory impression is fresh
• Delay allows imagination to distort the retained images

Optical Illusions #

• Two equal straight lines: adding marks to one makes it appear longer than the other
• This demonstrates how common sensibles (shape, magnitude) are deceiving
• The illusion persists even when one maintains the true opinion that the lines are equal
• Shows a sign of painted trompe-l’oeil effects where depth appears where there is flatness

Renaissance Painting Techniques #

• The Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum’s Annunciation painting: a pavement scene that appears to recede the same way whether viewed from the left or right side of the room
• Painters achieving the effect of eyes following the viewer around a room through particular techniques of perspective
• A classical story of one painter deceiving another: painting grapes so realistic the other painter tried to eat them; the deceived painter painted a curtain so realistically the first painter tried to pull it aside

Shakespeare’s The Winter’s Tale #

• King falsely accuses wife of infidelity; she feigns death but goes into hiding
• A famous artist creates a statue of the wife so lifelike that in the reconciliation scene, the king almost tries to kiss it
• The statue gradually comes alive, resolving the deception and reconciliation
• Illustrates the power of imagination to be deceived by appearances that resemble reality

Sensory Affection and Taste #

• A heavily smoking person loses taste sensitivity; hot foods (pepperoni pizza) ruin the ability to taste wine properly
• When the sense organ is affected, even proper sensibles are misperceived
• Eating candy before an orange makes the orange taste bitter
• Shows that proper sensibles are reliable only when the sense organ is healthy and unaffected

Sun Appearing Smaller Than Expected #

• Looking at the sun in the sky, one can block it out with one’s hand
• Yet one believes the sun is larger than the entire earth
• Imagination presents it as foot-sized; opinion knows it as vastly larger
• These operate simultaneously without contradiction because they are not both opinions

Notable Quotes #

“If imagining is an opinion based on sense or from sense, it’s going to be an opinion about the very thing you sense.”

“Imagination is a motion produced by the senses… [it] resembles the sensing of you. But it’s going to be weaker.”

“The senses are hardly ever deceived about their own private sensibles… the sweet is going to taste sweet, the salt is going to taste salty.”

“When reason is in control, you are in control. When anger is in control, you have lost control of yourself.”

“Substance is known only by the understanding. It’s the proper object of understanding.”

“There’s a sign that the eye of the soul and the eye of the body are in some way alike.”

Questions Addressed #

Is imagination identical to sensation? #

Resolution: No. Sensation requires external objects and functioning sense organs; imagination occurs without them (in dreams). Sensation about proper objects is always true; imagination is often false. Language reflects this: we assert directly when sensing clearly (“you are sitting there”), but use “it appears” or “it seems” when imagining.

Can imagination be a form of opinion or belief? #

Resolution: No. Opinion requires rational conviction and persuasion; animals possess imagination but lack reason. One cannot simultaneously hold two contradictory opinions, yet one can have a true opinion (the sun is larger than earth) while imagination presents something false (the sun appears foot-sized). They are not both opinions but an opinion opposed by imagination.

Why are we more easily deceived about common sensibles than proper sensibles? #

Resolution: Proper sensibles are direct, immediate objects of individual senses and are perceived with certitude unless the sense organ is damaged. Common sensibles (shape, size, distance) require a kind of judgment or reasoning, making them more subject to error. Imagination, being further removed from present sensation, is even more deceptive about these common sensibles.

What is the positive account of imagination? #

Resolution: Imagination is a motion (kinesis) produced by the act of sensation. The senses are moved by external objects and in turn move something more inward—imagination is this inward motion. It persists after sensation ceases but is weaker, resembling sensation in kind while differing in intensity. It is present in animals with sensation but not identical to sensation itself.

Connections to Prior Discussion #

• Moved Mover Principle: Referenced from earlier natural philosophy lectures; applies to how sensation produces imagination
• Division of Sensibles: Builds on prior lectures distinguishing proper, common, and accidental sensibles
• Nature of Substance: Language about understanding (from Latin intelligere, related to substance, substantia) being the faculty that knows substance, not the senses