57. Deliberation, Goods of the Soul, and the Application of Universals

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Lecture Notes

Main Topics #

The Structure of Deliberation #

When deliberating about which action to pursue, three things are required:

1. First option - one possible course of action
2. Second option - another possible course of action
3. Third thing - a measure or standard by which to judge between them

This third measure is necessary because deliberation seeks the greater or the better of the two options. Without a common standard, comparison is impossible.

The Three Kinds of Human Goods #

Following Aristotle’s division in the Politics, all human goods fall into three categories:

• Goods of the soul - moral virtues and intellectual virtues (wisdom, prudence, etc.)
• Goods of the body - health, strength, beauty, physical capability
• Exterior/External goods - property, clothing, house, possessions

This division is universally recognized, even among non-philosophers, as evidenced in nursery rhymes (“Early to bed, early to rise makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise”).

The Hierarchy of Goods: Socrates vs. the Athenians #

Socrates’ position: The goods of the soul are vastly superior to goods of the body and exterior goods. One should pursue the goods of the soul maximally and be satisfied with the minimum necessary for body and exterior goods.

Athenian position: The goods of the body and exterior goods are primary. One should maximize these and maintain only the minimum moderation necessary to preserve and acquire them.

How to judge which is correct: We must identify a measure by which to compare them:

• If God is superior to man, and the soul is more like God than the body, then the goods of the soul must be better.
• If man is superior to beasts, and man is superior precisely by what he has that beasts lack (not by what he shares with them), then the goods of the soul—which beasts lack—must be better than the goods of the body which man shares with beasts.

Universal Knowledge vs. Singular Knowledge in Action #

The scientific power (that which knows universals) does not move us to action until the universal is applied to the particular.

The problem: A universal principle (e.g., “fornication is wrong”) does not automatically determine action. The universal must be brought to bear on the particular situation one is actually facing.

Why this creates conflict in fallen human nature:

• Reason apprehends the universal (“This is fornication, and fornication is wrong”)
• The senses are attracted by the particular (“This is pleasant to the senses”)
• The senses have a special strength regarding action because they know the singular directly
• When the universal is not applied to the particular, reason fails to move the will, and sense desire can prevail

The Application Problem: Abortion as Case Study #

Berquist gives an extended example of how people systematically fail to apply universals to particulars:

The contradiction in law:

• If a man beats a pregnant woman and kills her baby, he is guilty of homicide (a human being has been killed)
• Yet if a woman chooses abortion, this is not homicide, but a “right to choose”
• In both cases, the same act occurs: an innocent human being is killed
• Yet in one case it falls under “homicide” and in the other under “a right”

How people avoid applying the universal:

• They refuse to call abortion by its proper name: murder
• They use alternative language: “woman’s right to choose” (a fiction), “terminating a pregnancy”
• They deliberately avoid bringing the particular case under the universal concept that properly applies to it: “taking the life of an innocent human being = murder”

The Socratic method: Socrates would expose such contradictions and force the person to face it. The courts similarly fail because they will not face the fundamental contradiction.

Key Arguments #

The Three-Measure Principle #

You cannot judge between two things without a third thing by which to measure them. This applies to:

• Choosing between competing goods
• Judging whether one thing is better than another
• Determining the proper order of pursuit in life

The Singular Strength of Sensation #

Sensation and imagination have a special power regarding action because they know the singular directly, while reason knows only the universal. This explains:

• Why sense desire can overcome rational judgment
• Why someone can know in principle that something is wrong but still do it
• Why the application of universal to particular is crucial—without it, the singular (known by sense) dominates

Avoiding the Universal: The Modern Moral Problem #

When moral law is not taught explicitly, people have no universal available to apply. This creates “moral chaos.” Additionally, people who wish to pursue something they know is wrong often use euphemistic language that avoids bringing the act under its proper universal concept.

Important Definitions #

Deliberative Imagination (φαντασία deliberativa) #

Unlike the mere sensitive imagination found in animals, deliberative imagination in rational beings:

• Considers multiple possible images or courses of action
• Compares them through a measuring standard
• Can distinguish and judge which is better
• Requires understanding universals and applying them to particulars

The Application of Universal to Singular #

The necessary step in practical reasoning where a universal principle (known by reason) is brought to bear on a particular situation (known through sensation and imagination). Without this application, universal knowledge remains inert and cannot move the will to action.

Examples & Illustrations #

The Mother’s Medical Knowledge #

A woman giving birth knows her own body from repeated experience. When a standard dose of pain medication (e.g., Demerol) gives her a headache instead of relief, she learns to request half the normal dose. Through experience of her particular case, she prescribes better for herself than the doctor could, because:

• Medical art (science) deals with universals
• Experience deals with singulars
• What must be done is always singular

This illustrates why singular knowledge can be superior in practical matters, even though universal knowledge is more perfect in itself.

Personal Health Decisions #

Often we know better than a doctor what relieves our own stomach upset or ailment, because:

• We know our singular case through repeated experience
• The doctor knows the universal but must guess at our particular constitution
• Practical knowledge requires applying universals to our particular situation

Abortion Euphemism #

People say “woman’s right to choose” or “terminating a pregnancy” rather than “killing an innocent human being.” By avoiding the proper universal term, they avoid facing the moral reality of the particular act.

Historical Judgment #

John Dryden, as a young man, thought Fletcher’s plays were as good as Shakespeare’s. It was only gradually, through experience and comparison, that he recognized Shakespeare’s superiority. This shows:

• You must first perceive a distinction between two things
• Before you can judge which is better
• The distinction comes before the judgment of better/worse

Questions Addressed #

How do we judge between two goods when we’re uncertain which is better? #

We must identify a third measure—a common standard that applies to both. For moral goods, this means understanding the proper end or principle under which both fall, then seeing which contributes better to that end.

Why do people commit acts they intellectually know are wrong? #

Because the universal principle (known by reason) is not applied to the particular situation. Reason knows “fornication is wrong” as a universal, but if this universal is not applied to the particular case the person is facing, the person is drawn by the senses’ knowledge of the singular (“this is pleasant”) and the senses’ special strength regarding action takes over.

How can we tell if someone is truly applying moral law? #

If they are unwilling to call the act by its proper name (murder, adultery, fornication), they are likely avoiding the application of the universal to the singular. Socratic questioning would reveal this avoidance.

What happens when moral law is not explicitly taught? #

Without universals available, people live in “moral chaos.” They do what feels right, following sense appetite. The universal, in a sense, must be present to move action—even the incontinent person acts against a universal they know, but the continent person successfully applies it.

Notable Quotes #

“The universal doesn’t move us to action unless it be applied to the singular.”

“If you use the word murder for this, [they] don’t want you to use the word. They don’t want to call a spade a spade.”

“There is no such right to kill your own baby.”

“They want to have their cake and eat it. In both cases it comes under the same thing: you’re taking the life of an innocent human being. That’s what murder is.”

“So he’s using a third thing to say which of these two is better and more to be pursued.”

“The senses know the good, not according to universal reason, but according to what is agreeable to the senses.”

“If the universal is not applied to the singular, then reason is not really being used there. You do what you feel like doing. It feels right.”