71. Lowest Species and Diverse Operations: Soul and Angel

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Lecture Notes

Main Topics #

The Concept of Lowest Species #

• A lowest species is one wherein all instances have exactly the same shape or form
• Examples contrasted:
  • Equilateral Triangle (Isosceles Triangle): All equilateral triangles have the same shape, but isosceles triangles can vary (ratio of equal side to unequal side may be 2:1 or 3:1)
  • Square vs. Oblong: All squares have the same form; oblongs vary (10×2 vs. 6×2)
  • Wisdom vs. Knowledge (Episteme): Wisdom is a lowest species (few varieties); reasoned-out knowledge (episteme) is a genus with many species (geometry, natural philosophy, etc.)
• The distinction becomes less clear in non-mathematical domains (drama, tragedy, comedy)

Soul and Angel: Are They One Species? #

The Question #

Given that both soul and angel are understanding substances, are they of one species?

Arguments for Same Species #

1. Both have the same ultimate end (eternal beatitude)
2. The ultimate specific difference is understanding, which both possess
3. The body is outside the soul’s essence, so separation should not change species

Berquist’s Resolution: They Are Different Species #

Despite being understanding substances, soul and angel differ fundamentally:

• Angel: Understanding is simple and blessed (ἀπλῆ καὶ μακαρία); the angel knows through its own substance and infused forms; no turning toward sensibles
• Soul: Understanding requires discourse and turning toward images; gathers universals from sensible things through induction
• This operational difference indicates a specific difference in kind

The Term “Understanding” (Intellectuale Esse) #

• The word “understanding” is equivocal by reason—it is kept by one particular and a new name given to the other
• Latin terminology:
  • Intellectus (pure intellect): The angelic mode—direct, simple, complete understanding
  • Ratio (reason): The human mode—discursive movement from one understanding to another
• Understanding is not univocal but applies differently to different grades of understanding
• The soul has an intellectus abumbratus (overshadowed understanding)—imperfect and requiring discourse

Why Immaterial Substances Cannot Have Same Species Through Matter #

• In immaterial substances, numerical diversity requires specific diversity
• Matter is the only principle allowing multiple instances of one form (e.g., the same cookie shape in different dough)
• Without continuous quantity (matter with parts outside parts), substances cannot differ merely by location
• Immaterial substances must differ as circle and square differ—in form itself, not in spatial position
• Therefore: No two angels can be of one species; the soul differs from all angels by species

The Soul’s Unique Status: Lowest Grade of Understanding #

• The soul holds the lowest grade of understanding among understanding substances
• Reason: The soul needs the body for its operation—not as an organ but as an object
• The soul is naturally ordered to a body (unlike angels, which are not ordered to bodies)
• This demonstrates the soul is inferior in understanding to angels
• Yet the soul is subsisting and understanding—it is properly an understanding substance

Individual Souls and Individual Bodies #

• Each soul is proportioned to a particular body
• The soul was made by God for that specific body; the body was made for that soul
• If one’s parents had not met, one’s soul would not have been created
• God’s providence extends to parents meeting and conceiving
• This shows the gratuitous nature of individual existence
• Personal immortality preserved: Even when separated from the body, each soul remains the soul proportioned to that particular body
• This excludes the error that all souls merge into one universal soul after separation
• At resurrection, one receives one’s own body back (not another’s)

The Error of Origen #

• Origen held that all human souls and angels were created equal and of one species initially
• Diversity arose only from free will and sin—some souls fell and became attached to bodies
• This is influenced by Platonism and transmigration of souls doctrine
• Thomas’s refutation: In immaterial, incorporeal substances, there cannot be diversity by number without diversity by kind and natural inequality
• The diversity among immaterial substances is necessary and rooted in their forms, not accidental from free choice

Higher vs. Lower Angels #

• All angels differ from one another in species
• The higher the angel: Fewer thoughts but better understanding; understands more simply and completely
• The lower the angel: More thoughts but inferior understanding; requires more multiplicity to know
• Analogy in humans: The more intelligent person grasps something quickly and understands it better; the less intelligent person needs more examples and comparisons yet still understands less well

Key Arguments #

Against Same Species (Diverse Operations) #

• Things with diverse natural operations differ in species
• The soul and angel have diverse natural operations:
  • Soul: Gathers knowledge through discourse from sensible things; understanding depends on turning toward images
  • Angel: Understands through its own substance and infused forms; simple, blessed understanding without turning to sensibles
• Therefore: Soul and angel are not of one species

Against Immaterial Individuation Without Specific Difference #

• In material substances, many individuals can share one form (e.g., many dogs, many humans)
• This is possible because matter is the principle of individuation through continuous quantity
• In immaterial substances (angel, soul, separated soul), there is no matter with parts outside parts
• Therefore, numerical diversity cannot rest on material differentiation
• The only remaining principle is formal (specific) difference
• Conclusion: Immaterial substances differing numerically must differ specifically; they are different kinds

On the Soul’s Dependence on the Body #

• The soul’s natural need for the body (as object, not organ, of operation) shows it holds the lowest grade of understanding
• The soul naturally turns toward images in this life
• Understanding itself is not in the body, but the soul’s mode of understanding is inferior to the angel’s
• This does not make the soul less subsisting or less understanding—it makes it the lowest understanding substance

Important Definitions #

Intellectus Abumbratus #

• Latin: An “overshadowed” or “darkened” understanding
• The human mode of intellection: imperfect, requiring discourse, dependent on sensory images
• Contrasts with the simple, direct intellectual vision of angels

Lowest Species (Infima Species) #

• A species wherein all instances have the same form or shape
• Cannot be further divided into sub-species
• Examples: Equilateral triangle, square, wisdom
• Contrasts with genera (which can be divided) and with species that admit of varieties

Intellectus vs. Ratio #

• Intellectus: Direct, intuitive intellectual grasp; characteristic of angels; complete and simple
• Ratio: Discursive, movement-based reasoning; characteristic of humans; gathers understanding step by step
• Both are modes of understanding (intellectuale esse) but operate fundamentally differently

Equivocal by Reason (Aequivocum a Ratione) #

• A term applied to different things according to different definitions
• One particular retains the common name while another receives a new name
• Occurs when only one party fully possesses what the common name signifies; the other possesses it deficiently
• Example: “Understanding” is equivocal—angels have it fully; humans have it deficiently as reason

Proportionality of Soul to Body #

• Not any form can inform any matter
• Individual souls are adapted to individual bodies
• This proportionality is rooted in the soul’s nature and the soul’s creation by God
• Persists even after the soul’s separation from the body
• Grounds personal immortality and the possibility of resurrection

Examples & Illustrations #

Geometric Forms #

• Equilateral vs. Isosceles Triangles: Equilateral triangles all have one shape; isosceles triangles vary (2:1, 3:1 ratios)
• Squares vs. Oblongs: Squares all have the same form; oblongs vary in proportions (10×2, 6×2)
• Shows how members of the same logical division can differ regarding lowest species

Drama and Comedy #

• Shakespeare’s comedies include at least two kinds: good-natured comedy and satire
• Shows that in non-mathematical domains, the division into lowest species is less clear
• Illustrates the challenge of classification in qualitative matters

Cookie Cutter Analogy #

• A baker makes many identical Christmas tree cookies from dough
• All have the same form (Christmas tree shape)
• They differ only by being in different portions of matter
• Without matter (dough), you cannot have multiple instances of the same shape
• Illustrates why immaterial substances differing numerically must differ formally

Human Intelligence #

• The more intelligent person understands quickly with few words
• The less intelligent person requires many examples and comparisons
• Both may understand the same thing, but one grasps it better
• Shows analogy between human intellectual variation and angelic variety

Grade School Mathematics #

• Some students complete the first set of exercises and understand
• Others need the “extra exercises for those who need it” but still understand less well
• Illustrates natural variation in the capacity to understand

Parental Contingency (Kierkegaard) #

• A realization that one’s mother and father might never have met
• If they had not met, one would not exist
• Even if they met, the odds (given the number of sperm) were astronomically against one’s being conceived
• Shows the gratuitous nature of individual existence rooted in God’s providence

Notable Quotes #

“All angels are created unequal.” — Berquist’s paraphrase of Thomistic doctrine (contrasting with democratic thinking)

“God hates equality.” — Berquist’s interpretation of Thomas’s teaching on natural inequality of immaterial substances

“Angelic minds have a simple and blessed understanding, not gathering from visible things.” — Dionysius, cited by Berquist on the nature of angelic intellection

“Reason is the ability for a large discourse, looking before and after.” — Shakespeare, cited by Berquist on the nature of human reason

“We gather the universal from a large induction.” — Berquist, explaining how humans come to understand through discourse

“In immaterial, incorporeal substances, there cannot be diversity by number without diversity by kind and natural inequality.” — Thomas Aquinas, cited by Berquist as the key principle excluding Origen’s error

“If whiteness were separated, it could only be one only.” — Thomas Aquinas, on why immaterial forms cannot be multiplied

“Your soul was made for your body; your body was made for your soul.” — Berquist, on the proportionality of soul and body

“Even if your soul is separated from its body, it still is a soul proportioned to that body.” — Berquist, preserving personal immortality against pantheistic errors

“There is no royal road to geometry.” — Euclid, cited by Berquist on why essential matters cannot be condensed

Questions Addressed #

Are Soul and Angel of One Species? #

Resolution: No. Despite both being understanding substances, they differ in species because they differ fundamentally in their natural operations. The soul gathers knowledge discursively from sensible things; the angel understands simply through its own substance. In immaterial substances, operational diversity entails specific diversity.

How Can Immaterial Substances Differ Numerically? #

Resolution: Not through matter (which they lack) but through form. Immaterial substances differing numerically must differ formally (in kind). Unlike material substances where the same form can exist in different matter, in immaterial substances each instance must be a different kind—as circle and square differ.

Why Did God Create Individual Souls? #

Resolution: Each soul is proportioned by God to a particular body. The soul is created when the body is prepared by the parents. This individual creation preserves personal immortality: each soul remains the soul of that particular body, even when separated, ensuring resurrection in one’s own body.

Does the Soul’s Dependence on Images Make It Less Understanding? #

Resolution: The soul remains an understanding substance (not merely sensitive), but the lowest grade of understanding. Its need for sensible images (as object, not organ) shows it is inferior to angels. Yet this does not diminish the soul’s subsistence or immortality—it only determines its rank among understanding substances.