125. Intellectual Desire and the Application of Universal to Singular

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Lecture Notes

Main Topics #

Sense Desire vs. Intellectual Desire #

• Sense desire: Moved by what is apprehended by sensation; grasps the good as agreeable to the senses (pleasure/pain)
• Intellectual desire: Moved by what is apprehended by understanding; grasps the good under universal reasons
• Key difference: One can intellectually desire something even without sensible appetite for it (e.g., eating vegetables when not hungry because reason recognizes health benefit)

Universal Desire and the Genus #

• Intellectual desire can be directed toward things under a universal reason
• Example: Hate can be directed toward the whole genus of terrorists, not just individual terrorists
• Animals cannot hate a class of things universally; they only react to immediate sensible harm (e.g., an animal fears one person who hurt it, but cannot hate “cruelty in general”)
• Humans can recognize an individual as belonging to a bad genus (“he is a torturer”) and desire to avoid all such persons

Immaterial Goods #

• Intellectual desire alone can desire immaterial goods: truth, wisdom, God, syllogisms, sciences, virtues
• The senses cannot grasp these things; therefore sense desire cannot reach them
• A syllogism cannot be sensibly apprehended, yet the will can desire to use syllogisms as the strongest form of argument

The Application Problem: Universal to Singular #

• The principle: Action is always something singular; universal opinion does not move except through particular apprehension
• “Man should drink water” (universal) only moves to action when one recognizes “this glass of water” (particular)
• “Honor your father and mother” (universal) only produces action when one recognizes “this person is my father” (particular)
• One cannot give to “the needy in general” but only to this specific person in need

Temptation and the Failure to Apply Knowledge #

• Temptation is NOT ignorance of the universal principle (“adultery is wrong”)
• Rather, it is the failure to apply the universal principle to the particular act at the moment of action
• The tempted person knows both universals: “adultery is wrong” AND “pleasure is to be pursued”
• But in the moment, he applies only one: he considers the act as pleasant and does not apply the principle that “this is adultery”
• He does not wait for full consideration of the matter

Free Judgment and Partial Considerations #

• Because humans can apply various universals to a situation, they have free judgment
• One can find multiple reasons for or against an action (e.g., reasons to procrastinate, reasons not to do duties)
• Animals, lacking this ability, are determined by nature to judge in a certain way given circumstances
• The presence of strong emotions can prevent the proper application of universal principles (especially with lust)

Key Arguments #

Why Intellectual and Sense Desires Are Distinct Powers #

Principle: Passive powers are distinguished by their active principles

• Sense desire is moved by sensation
• Intellectual desire is moved by understanding
• Therefore they are distinct powers, even though both can have the same object

The Third Objection Addressed: Motion and Knowledge #

Objection: Just as desire is directed by knowledge, so also is bodily motion directed by knowledge. Why not two powers of motion corresponding to two knowing powers?

Thomas’s Reply:

• Action is always singular
• Universal opinion moves only through particular apprehension
• The higher desire (intellectual) moves the lower (sensual) and moves the body through the sensual as a middle
• No separate motive power is needed because all action requires the application of universal to singular

Important Definitions #

Amor (Latin) #

• The sense love; emotional appetite
• More sensual in character
• Related to English “amorous”

Eros (Greek) #

• Even more sensual than amor
• Related to English “erotic”
• Often not used by philosophers; they prefer philia

Dilexio (Latin) #

• Chosen love; love of the will
• Related to electio (choice)
• Involves the use of reason, comparison of things

Philia (Greek) #

• Friendship; chosen love
• A love involving reason and discrimination between persons
• More characteristic of philosophers than sophists

Agape (Greek) #

• Charity; divine love
• Used in Scripture where eros might be expected
• A universal, self-giving love

Storge (Greek) #

• Natural affection; the love for one’s children
• A spontaneous familial love

Examples & Illustrations #

Eating Without Appetite #

• One lacks appetite for vegetables but eats them because reason recognizes health benefit
• This is intellectually desired, not sensibly desired
• Shows that intellectual desire can override sense appetite

Hating a Genus #

• One dislikes all terrorists as a class (universal hate)
• But senses do not know what “terrorist” is in general
• When one recognizes an individual as a terrorist, one sees him as coming under this bad genus
• An animal, by contrast, fears one person who hurt it but cannot hate the class of those who cause pain

The Syllogism #

• One cannot have emotional attachment to a syllogism
• But one’s reason recognizes a syllogism as the strongest form of argument
• The syllogism has no sensible appeal (no meter, rhythm, or sensible quality)
• Yet it can be desired as a good intellectual instrument

Giving to Charity #

• One may have a universal principle: “I should give to worthwhile causes”
• But there are more worthwhile causes than one can support
• One only writes a check when a particular cause comes under this universal (“I will give to this organization this month”)
• Action requires the application of universal to singular

Recognizing Duty #

• Universal: “You should honor your father and mother”
• Without recognizing “this person is my father”, no action follows
• Once one recognizes the particular, the universal moves to action

Drinking Water #

• Universal: “A man should drink water for bodily well-being”
• But one will not drink unless one recognizes “this is a glass of water”
• The singular apprehension must meet the universal principle

Honoring a Parent #

• One could think all day about honoring father and mother without actually doing it
• But if one’s father has nowhere to sit and one recognizes “this man is my father”, one will fetch him a chair
• The particular apprehension of need and relationship moves to singular action

Paying a Debt #

• Universal: “I should pay my debts”
• One only acts when one recognizes “this person is someone I owe money to”
• Without the particular apprehension, the universal remains inert

Dreams and Responsibility #

• People are less responsible for what they do in dreams
• Because in dreams they are less able to reapply the universal to the singular
• Emotions and passions interfere with the application of known principles

St. Francis de Sales #

• Naturally irascible (angry) by birth
• Through repeated acts of controlling anger, he became mild and gentle
• Habit becomes a second nature
• When tempted to lose his hard-won virtue, he said: “I worked 20 years to build up this virtue, I just can’t throw it away”
• Shows how moral virtue is built through habituation, not mere knowledge

Notable Quotes #

“The universal opinion does not move except by meeting the particular.” (Aristotle, De Anima III, as cited by Thomas)

“For virtue, to know is little or nothing; you have to be accustomed to these things.” (Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics)

“Since my dear soul was mistress of her choice, her election has sealed thee for herself…Give me that man that is not passion’s slave, and I’ll wear him in my heart’s core.” (Shakespeare, Hamlet, illustrating chosen love based on reason’s discrimination between persons)

“Blessed are they whose blood and judgment are so well commingled / They are not a pipe for fortune’s finger to stop where she pleases.” (Shakespeare, Hamlet, on those not enslaved by passion)

Questions Addressed #

How can one desire something without appetite for it? #

Answer: Through intellectual desire. One can recognize through reason that something is good (e.g., vegetables for health) and desire it even without sensible appetite. This shows intellectual desire is distinct from sense desire.

Can the senses grasp what a terrorist is? #

Answer: No. The senses cannot grasp the universal nature of “terrorist.” But reason can, and therefore only through intellectual desire can one hate terrorists as a genus. An animal cannot hate the class of those who cause pain; it can only fear or avoid the individual who hurt it.

Why doesn’t knowledge of a universal immediately produce action? #

Answer: Because action is always singular. One must apply the universal principle to a particular situation. Knowing “honor your father” does not produce action unless one recognizes a particular person as one’s father.

How does temptation occur if one knows an act is wrong? #

Answer: Temptation involves knowing the universal principle but failing to apply it to the particular act at the moment of action. The person knows “adultery is wrong” and “pleasure should be pursued” but focuses only on the pleasure aspect, not applying the full knowledge that “this is adultery” to the particular act.

Why are animals not responsible for their actions in the way humans are? #

Answer: Because animals cannot apply universals to particulars. They are determined by nature to judge and act in a certain way given particular circumstances. Humans, having reason, can apply various universals and thus have free judgment and moral responsibility.