4. The Better and the Hierarchy of Human Goods

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Lecture Notes

Main Topics #

• The Better vs. The Good: Building on the previous conclusion that “something is wanted because it is good,” this lecture addresses whether something is “better” because we want it more
• The Principle of the End Being Better Than Means: The foundational principle that what something is done for the sake of is always better than what is done for its sake
• Three Categories of Human Goods: Goods of the soul, goods of the body, and exterior/outside goods
• The Disagreement Between Philosophers and Most Men: The fundamental disagreement about which category of goods is superior and what this implies for human life

Key Arguments #

Logical Structure: Better Because Wanted More? #

• The False Answer: Someone might say goods are better for Socrates because he wants soul goods more, and better for Athenians because they want bodily and exterior goods more
• Why This Fails: This would imply that “something is good because you want it more,” which contradicts the established principle that “something is not good because you want it”
• The Valid Conclusion: If something is not good because you want it, then it is not better because you want it more
• Consequence: The Athenians cannot defend their pursuit of bodily and exterior goods merely by claiming they want them more; they must give an objective reason

The End is Better Than the Means #

Proof by Induction:

• Health vs. medicine: health is better
• Having money vs. making money: having is better
• Knowing vs. studying: knowing is better
• Being in Paris vs. flying to Paris: being there is better
• A whole brick wall vs. a pile of bricks: the organized whole is better
• Wine sauce vs. separate ingredients: the finished sauce is better

Proof by Universal Principle (“That of which more so”):

• The Principle: If the same property belongs to two things, but to one because of the other, it belongs more to the cause than the effect
• Aristotle’s Formulation: “ὃ κατὰ πλείονα” (that of which more so)
• Examples of the Principle:
  • Sugar is sweeter than coffee sweetened by sugar (coffee is sweet because of sugar)
  • Fire is hotter than air around the fire (air is hot because of fire)
  • Salt is saltier than salted French fries (fries are salty because of salt)
• Application to Ends and Means: Good/desirable is said of both the end (health) and the means (medicine), but medicine is desired because of health. Therefore, health is more good/desirable than medicine

The Three Categories of Human Goods #

• Goods of the Soul: Wisdom, virtue, moral excellence, the virtues of reason
• Goods of the Body: Health, strength, physical well-being
• Exterior/Outside Goods: Wealth, property, possessions, clothing, tools

Outside Goods Are for the Sake of Inside Goods #

Inductive Examples:

• Shoes are for the sake of feet
• Glasses are for the sake of eyes
• Clothing is for the sake of the body
• A chair is for holding up your body
• An automobile is for getting you to campus
• A stereo is for your ear to hear Mozart
• A painting is for the sake of the eyes to see

Conclusion: Outside goods are instrumentally ordered to inside goods, either immediately or ultimately. The art of carpentry (in the soul) is ultimately for the sake of things inside us—books are for the mind, and so on.

Application of the Principle: Since the end is better than the means, and outside goods are for the sake of inside goods, the inside goods are better than the outside goods. The outside goods receive the “bronze medal” (third place).

Important Definitions #

The Better: Determined by objective principles, not by what we want more. The end is always better than the means.

The End (τέλος, telos): “That for the sake of which” something is or is done. The purpose or goal toward which something is ordered. Always better than what is ordered to it.

Goods of the Soul: The excellences proper to reason and what partakes of reason—not only acts of reason itself (understanding, reasoning, defining) but also acts that are ordered by reason (virtuous acts of will, measured anger, reasonable eating).

Inside vs. Outside Goods: Inside goods are composed of soul and body (the two interior components of a human being). Outside goods are external possessions and tools.

Examples & Illustrations #

Means and Ends #

• Medicine and health: Medicine is for the sake of health; health is better
• Making money and having money: Making is for the sake of having; having is better
• Studying and knowing: Studying is for the sake of knowing; knowing is better
• The stereo example: I have a stereo so I can play the Mozart CD so my ear can hear it—the outside good (stereo) serves the inside good (hearing)
• The painting example: If I were blind, I wouldn’t have a painting—it exists for the sake of the eyes’ ability to see

The Athenians vs. Socrates #

• The Athenian position: Pursue bodily and exterior goods maximally, accept only minimum soul goods necessary for survival
• The Socratic position: Pursue soul goods maximally, accept only minimum bodily and exterior goods necessary for living
• The disagreement’s significance: Not about minor preferences (like Mozart vs. rock), but about the entire weight and purpose of human life

The Mother Goose Rhyme #

“Early to bed, early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise”

• Healthy = good of the body
• Wealthy = exterior good
• Wise = good of the soul
• This folk wisdom already recognizes the three categories of goods

Notable Quotes #

“If something is not good because you want it, then it is not more good or better because you want it more.”

“The end is always better than what is for the sake of it.”

“The outside is for the sake of the inside, ultimately.”

“This disagreement between Socrates and the Athenians is not a little disagreement…this is a disagreement about all the goods of human life…about the whole weight, you might say, of human life.”

“But this disagreement is also about the very end and purpose and goal of human life, what it’s all about.”

Questions Addressed #

Is Something Better Because We Want It More? #

Answer: No. This would be circular reasoning that contradicts the principle that something is not good because we want it. One must give an objective reason why one set of goods is better than another.

What is the General Principle for Determining What is Better? #

Answer: The end is better than what is for the sake of it. This principle can be proven through induction (examining particular examples) and through the universal principle that when the same property belongs to two things but to one because of the other, it belongs more fully to the cause.

Which Goods Are Better: Exterior, Bodily, or Soul Goods? #

Answer: Exterior goods are for the sake of bodily goods, and bodily goods are for the sake of soul goods. Therefore, by the principle that the end is better than means: soul goods are best, bodily goods are second, and exterior goods are third (bronze medal).

What Does This Mean for How We Should Live? #

Answer: If one believes exterior and bodily goods are better, one will pursue them maximally and accept only the minimum of soul goods necessary for survival. If one believes soul goods are better, one will pursue them maximally and accept only the minimum bodily and exterior goods necessary for living. This fundamentally determines the shape and direction of one’s entire life.