11. The Definition of Moral Virtue and the Mean

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Lecture Notes

Main Topics #

The Genus of Moral Virtue #

• Moral virtue is a quality (ποιότης), not a substance, quantity, or shape
• Quality has four kinds: habit/disposition, ability/power, sense quality (emotion), and shape/figure
• Moral virtue is specifically a habit or disposition (ἕξις/hexis)
• Distinguishes virtue from mere emotion: the ability to feel fear or boldness is not courage itself
• The virtuous person is disposed to feel emotions as they should, in the right manner

The Five Components of the Definition #

Moral virtue is defined as:

1. A habit (with choice) - not mere emotional capacity
2. With choice (μετὰ προαιρέσεως) - involving deliberation and decision
3. In the mean (ἐν μέσῳ) - between excess and defect
4. Toward us (πρὸς ἡμᾶς) - relative to the individual and circumstances, not mathematical midpoint
5. Determined by right reason (λόγῳ ὀρθῷ/orthos logos) - guided by prudence/foresight

The Mean (Mesotes) #

• Virtue lies between two vicious extremes
• The mean is not the mathematical midpoint of the thing itself (e.g., half a bottle is not moderate drinking)
• The mean is what is “neither too much nor too little for me, in these circumstances”
• Varies based on individual characteristics (age, size, occupation), circumstances (time, place, purpose), and context (holidays vs. ordinary days)
• Determined by right reason considering all particulars

Comparison to the Arts #

• Aristotle compares moral virtue to human arts (poiesis)
• In carpentry: a table leg must be cut to the right length, not too long or too short
• In cooking: a steak can be cooked too much or too little; salt and pepper must be in proper proportion
• In fine arts: excellence requires knowing when to stop (exemplified by Mozart’s compositional restraint)
• The principle applies: the good lies in the mean, determined by the purpose and context

Non-Equidistance from Extremes #

• Virtue is typically closer to one extreme than the other
• Some virtues (courage, liberality) are closer to the excess extreme
• Other virtues (moderation) are closer to the defect extreme
• This reflects which extreme is more contrary to reason and virtue

Key Arguments #

Why Habit, Not Mere Ability or Emotion? #

• We are blamed for vices and praised for virtues, implying responsibility and choice
• This requires a stable disposition developed through habituation, not just emotional capacity
• The courageous man has a habit whereby he is disposed to feel anger and boldness as he should
• The moderate man habitually chooses to eat and drink as reason dictates

The Mean Is Toward Us, Not Mathematical #

• A working man needs more food than a sedentary man; both can be moderate
• On Thanksgiving, eating more than usual may not be vicious given the occasion
• Whether anger is appropriate depends on whether a provocation was accidental or intentional
• Reason must determine what is appropriate by considering the person, circumstances, and particulars

Why Some Virtues Are Closer to Excess #

Courage and Foolhardiness vs. Cowardice:

• The foolhardy man lacks reason but may grow into courage with age and experience
• Young men are hot-blooded; as they mature and see dangers, foolhardiness can become courage
• The coward seems more thoughtful but is further from virtue
• Therefore, courage is closer to foolhardiness than to cowardice

Liberality and Extravagance vs. Stinginess:

• One can spend too much or too little for one’s circumstances
• A wealthy Maharaja donating $25 to charity spends too little
• A couple celebrating their anniversary at McDonald’s spends appropriately if that is all they can afford
• Liberality is closer to extravagance (excessive spending) than to stinginess

Why Some Virtues Are Closer to Defect #

Moderation and Excess vs. Insensibility:

• It is natural to pursue sensory pleasures; children must be warned against eating too much candy
• It is rare to lack appetite for food or sex; Aristotle must invent a name for this defect
• Excess in pleasure-seeking (gluttony, drunkenness, lechery) is more foolish than lacking sensory appetite
• Therefore, moderation is closer to insensibility than to intemperance

The Connection Between Excess and Foolishness #

• The foolhardy person is named from lacking reason, yet is closer to courage
• The word “fond” (F-O-N-D) originally meant foolish; to be fond of someone is to act foolishly
• Plato’s Protagoras shows that moderation and wisdom share the same opposite: foolishness
• The man who drinks too much acts like a fool; the designated driver acts soberly and wisely

Important Definitions #

Habit (ἕξις/Hexis) #

A stable disposition of the soul enabling virtuous action. Developed through repeated practice and habituation. Distinguishes virtue from mere capacity or emotional response.

Choice (προαίρεσις/Prohairesis) #

Deliberate selection of appropriate means to achieve an end. Involves both reason and desire. Central to moral responsibility since we praise or blame choices.

The Mean Toward Us (τὸ μέσον πρὸς ἡμᾶς/To Meson Pros Hemas) #

The appropriate amount relative to the individual person and circumstances, not a fixed mathematical point. Varies based on age, size, occupation, health, and context. Determined by practical wisdom.

Right Reason (ὀρθὸς λόγος/Orthos Logos) #

The standard by which the mean is determined. Identified with prudence (φρόνησις/phronesis), the virtue of practical wisdom. Requires knowledge of particulars and circumstances, not merely universal principles.

Examples & Illustrations #

Courage and Growth #

• Young George Washington’s letters describe the “sweet sound” of bullets passing by him
• Later in life, Washington reflected that he was young; Churchill echoed this: “There are few things more exhilarating than being shot at and missed”
• As young hot-blooded men mature, foolhardiness naturally transitions to courage through experience

Moderation in Food and Cooking #

• A steak cooked too much or too little is ruined; it must be cooked just right
• Salt and pepper must be balanced; too much spoils the dish, too little leaves it bland
• A child eating candy: we worry about excess, not about eating too little candy
• Eating more on Thanksgiving than on an ordinary day is not intemperate given the occasion
• A working man may need more food than a sedentary man; both can be moderate

Liberality and Money #

• A wealthy Maharaja donating $25 to charity spends too little given his wealth
• A couple celebrating their 25th anniversary spending $25 at McDonald’s if that is all they afford: appropriate
• A Maharaja’s generous wedding donation: appropriate liberality

The Arts and Knowing When to Stop #

• Mozart knew when to stop; the Emperor complained “too many notes, Mozart!” and Mozart replied, “just as many as are needed”
• A Sherlock Holmes story (The Norwood Builder): a clever criminal goes too far and reveals himself; he “lacked the supreme gift of the artist, knowing when to stop”
• Titian’s paintings excel “above all” because “he knew when to stop”

Questions Addressed #

What is the genus of moral virtue? #

Moral virtue is a quality, specifically a habit or disposition (not substance, quantity, or shape). This distinguishes it from mere emotional capacity or abstract ability.

Why must moral virtue involve choice? #

Because we are praised and blamed for virtues and vices. Praise and blame imply responsibility, which requires deliberate choice. Thus moral virtue must be a habit with choice, a disposition to choose rightly.

What does “the mean” mean? #

Virtue lies in the middle between two vicious extremes: excess and defect. However, this mean is not always equidistant from both extremes; some virtues are closer to excess, others to defect.

How do we distinguish “the mean of the thing” from “the mean toward us”? #

The mean of the thing is mathematical: half a bottle, half a turkey. The mean toward us is relative to the individual and circumstances: the appropriate amount for this person in these conditions. A working man may appropriately eat more than a sedentary man.

How does right reason determine the appropriate mean? #

Right reason (prudence/foresight) considers:

• The individual person (age, size, occupation, health, strength)
• The circumstances (time, place, occasion)
• The particulars of the situation (whether provocation was accidental or intentional)
• The context (ordinary day vs. Thanksgiving; operating before surgery vs. relaxing at home)

Why are some virtues closer to one extreme than the other? #

Because one extreme is more contrary to reason and virtue than the other. Courage is closer to foolhardiness (which, though lacking reason, may mature into virtue) than to cowardice. Moderation is closer to insensibility (which is rare and less contrary to reason) than to intemperance (which is foolish and more opposed to wisdom).