13. Man's Proper Function and the End of Human Life

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Lecture Notes

Main Topics #

Man’s Proper Function (Ergon) #

• Aristotle proceeds inductively and through division to identify what is unique to man
• Elimination Process:
  • Nutrition and growth are common to plants; therefore not man’s proper function
  • Sensation is common to animals; therefore not man’s proper function
  • Remaining: Activity of the soul by reason (or not without reason)
• The function is discovered by examining what man does that no other living thing does
• This method parallels examining specific arts (flute player, sculptor, carpenter, shoemaker) to identify their proper acts

Two Aspects of Reason in Man #

1. Obeying or being persuaded by reason (ἀκούειν/listening): The part of the soul that is not reason itself but can obey reason—the emotions and appetites
   • Requires habituation from parents and others
   • Analogous to Plato’s comparison: reason to emotions is like man to horse
   • Must be trained through repeated acts, like taming a wild horse
2. Having reason essentially: The rational faculty itself that thinks, takes counsel, and reasons
   • This is what distinguishes the human soul

The Definition of Human Good #

• Human good = activity of the soul by virtue (ἐνέργεια τῆς ψυχῆς κατὰ ἀρετήν)
• The act of a thing and its good act are the same generically (e.g., harpist and good harpist both play harp; difference is in virtue)
• Virtue makes both the thing and its act good
• Two components of complete human good:
  • Activity in accordance with reason or obeying reason
  • Perfected by virtue
  • Lasting through a complete life, not merely a day or week

The Completeness Requirement #

• One swallow does not make a spring; one day does not make a man blessed
• Happiness requires activity through the whole of life
• The good must be a complete life, not an isolated action

The Hierarchy of Virtues #

• Not all virtues are equal
• Intellectual virtues of reason itself are superior to moral virtues
• Two supreme human virtues:
  • Political foresight (prudence/φρόνησις): produces human happiness
  • Wisdom (σοφία): produces more divine happiness
• The virtues discovered in the middle books (moral virtues) are later compared and ranked in Book 10

Key Arguments #

The Argument from Function to End #

1. Every art and occupation has something it does (an act or ergon)
2. Examples: eye sees, ear hears, flute player plays flute, sculptor sculpts, carpenter builds
3. If all things with an act have an end in that act, then man (if he has an act) has his end in his act
4. Does man have something to do, or is he “by nature without anything to do”?
5. Therefore, man’s end must be understood through his proper function

The Argument from Induction and Division #

1. Examine what man has in common with other living things and what is unique
2. Plants: nutrition, growth, reproduction—common to man but not unique
3. Animals: sensation—common to man but not unique
4. Reason: unique to man among living things
5. Therefore, man’s proper function must be activity of the soul in accordance with reason
6. Therefore, man’s good is this activity perfected by virtue

The Soul Language #

• “Soul” (ψυχή) originally means the cause of life within living bodies
• The soul has different levels: plant soul (nutrition), animal soul (sensation), rational soul (reason)
• Man’s end involves the rational soul, not merely nutrition or sensation
• Good for man is activity of “the soul by reason”—the highest level of life proper to man

Important Definitions #

Ergon (ἔργον) #

The proper function, act, or activity of a thing; what a thing does that defines its nature. For man: activity of the soul in accordance with reason.

Virtue (Ἀρετή) #

A habit or disposition that makes a thing good and enables it to perform its function well. For man: what perfects the soul’s activity according to reason.

Eudaimonia (εὐδαιμονία) #

Happiness or flourishing; the ultimate end of human life, achieved through virtuous activity of the soul lasting through a complete life.

Ψυχή (Psyche/Soul) #

The principle or cause of life in living bodies. In humans, it has rational capacities—both the capacity to obey reason (in emotions and appetites) and the capacity to exercise reason itself.

Mesotes (Μεσότης) / The Mean #

The virtuous middle between two extremes; established by “right reason” (virtue of prudence). The mean is relative “towards us” (πρὸς ἡμᾶς)—relative to the individual and particular circumstances, not equidistant from extremes.

Examples & Illustrations #

Examples of Functions in Various Arts #

• Eye: its function is to see
• Flute player: plays the flute; a good flute player plays the flute well
• Sculptor: sculpts; a good sculptor sculpts well
• Cook: cooks; a good cook cooks well
• Carpenter, shoemaker: each has their characteristic work

The Bent Stick Analogy #

• When straightening a bent stick, you must bend it in the opposite direction first
• Applied to virtue: if naturally cowardly, bend toward rashness; if naturally stingy, bend toward extravagance
• The virtue is often closer to one extreme than the other, requiring corrective inclination
• Example: Courage is closer to foolhardiness than to cowardice; a cowardly person must practice being somewhat rash to become courageous
• Example: Generosity is closer to extravagance than to stinginess; a stingy person must practice spending freely to become generous

Historical Examples of Virtue Development #

• George Washington: His early military encounters showed youthful recklessness (being shot at was exhilarating); later learned temperance while remaining courageous
• The young Dominican brothers: Tend to be puritanical; must bend against this extreme to hit the mean of temperance
• St. Francis de Sales: Naturally inclined to anger; had to bend in the opposite direction to develop mildness

The Three Rules for Becoming Virtuous #

1. The bent stick principle: Understanding that virtue is often closer to one extreme, bend against it
2. Know yourself: Understand your own natural inclinations and bend accordingly
3. Beware of pleasure: Pleasure often leads people astray; Aristotle (pagan philosopher) warns against it

Notable Quotes #

“For just as the flute player, and the sculptor, and every artist, and even more generally, everyone for whom there is something to do… the good and well-being seems to be in doing this. So also it would seem to be for man, then, if there is something he does.” — Aristotle, establishing the functional argument for man’s end

“Are there, then, some doings and acts of the carpenter and the shoemaker, but of man there is none? He is by nature without anything to do?” — Aristotle, posing the critical question about whether man has a function

“One swallow does not make a spring in one day, right? And thus, neither one day nor a short time makes one blessed and happy.” — Aristotle, quoting an old proverb on the necessity of complete life for happiness

“The soul originally means what? The cause of life within living bodies, right?” — Berquist, clarifying the meaning of ψυχή (soul)

“But of this, the one is obeying or persuaded by reason. So Mozart represents what? He represents the emotions as, as it were, listening to or obeying what reason.” — Berquist, explaining the distinction between the part of the soul that obeys reason and the rational part itself

Questions Addressed #

What is man’s proper function? #

Answer: Activity of the soul in accordance with reason. This is discovered by eliminating what man shares with plants (nutrition) and animals (sensation), leaving what is unique to man.

How do we know man’s function is activity in accordance with reason? #

Answer: Through induction from specific arts and division of living things. Every art has a function; man, as a living thing, must have a function. Since nutrition and sensation are shared with lower creatures, reason must be unique to man and thus his proper function.

What is the human good? #

Answer: Activity of the soul in accordance with virtue. Good and good act are the same generically (both the harpist and good harpist play harp; the good harpist does it well). Virtue makes the act good.

Why must happiness require a complete life? #

Answer: Because one swallow does not make a spring, and one day of virtuous activity does not make a man blessed. Eudaimonia requires virtuous activity sustained through the whole of life.

What are the two aspects of reason in man? #

Answer: (1) The part that obeys or is persuaded by reason—the emotions and appetites that can be trained to listen to reason. (2) The part that has reason essentially—the rational faculty that thinks and takes counsel.

How are these two aspects related to virtue? #

Answer: Moral virtues perfect the part of the soul that obeys reason (through habituation and the mean). Intellectual virtues perfect reason itself. Both are necessary for complete human flourishing.

Connections to Prior Material #

• The definition of human good builds on the prior discussion of virtue as a mean between extremes
• The elimination of functions shared with plants and animals parallels the hierarchical ordering of sciences and arts discussed earlier
• The emphasis on activity (ἐνέργεια) rather than mere capacity connects to the substance/act distinction in metaphysics
• The requirement of a complete life connects to why political philosophy is the master science: it orders human life toward the ultimate end