6. Wisdom as Universal and Causal Knowledge

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Lecture Notes

Main Topics #

The Six Attributes of the Wise Man and Their Significance #

Aristotle constructs a six-part description of what constitutes wisdom and the wise man:

1. The wise man knows all things (insofar as possible for humans)
2. He knows things difficult for man to know
3. He is more certain or sure about what he says
4. He is more able to teach
5. His knowledge is most desirable for its own sake
6. He orders and directs others and is not ordered by anyone else

From the first three attributes, Aristotle reasons that wisdom must concern itself with what is said of all (the most universal). From the last three attributes, he reasons that wisdom must concern itself with first causes.

The Principle of Certainty and Universality #

Berquist develops a fundamental principle: the fewer things one must consider, the more certain one can be. This creates a hierarchy of certainty:

• Arithmetic (considers only unity, no position) is more certain than geometry
• Geometry (considers points with position) is more certain than natural philosophy
• Natural philosophy (considers matter) is more certain than political philosophy
• Political philosophy (must consider nature, custom, choice, and chance) is least certain

As one descends from more universal to less universal, one must consider additional factors. Therefore, the most universal knowledge is the most certain.

Two Distinct Senses of “Common to All” #

Berquist emphasizes a critical distinction that must not be confused:

• Universale in praedicando (said of all): What is predicated of many things. Example: “soldier” is said of all members of an army
• Universale in causando (cause of all): What causes all things. Example: The general who commands the entire army

These are fundamentally different. Modern pantheism (as in Hegel) conflates these two senses, confusing what is universally predicated with what is the cause of all. Thomas Aquinas’s entire first book of the Summa Contra Gentiles is devoted to showing that God (the first cause) is not the same as “being” (what is said of all things).

The Role of First Causes in Wisdom #

From the last three attributes, Aristotle establishes that wisdom must concern itself with first causes:

• The wise man is most able to teach because one teaches fully only by giving reasons (causes)
• One seeking knowledge for its own sake seeks what most enlightens the mind, which is the cause
• The cause is what truly explains and clarifies the effect; nothing is more enlightening than the cause
• The wise man directs all others toward the ultimate end, which requires knowing the end to which all other ends are subordinated

The End as Cause #

The end (purpose) is one of the four kinds of cause and is sometimes called the cause of all other causes. Example: A carpenter shapes wood into a table because the end (having something to write on) causes the efficient action, the form to be introduced, and the material to be arranged accordingly.

Key Arguments #

Argument 1: From Knowledge of All Things to Universals #

• Premise: The wise man knows all things insofar as it is possible for man to know all things
• Premise: No man can know all things in particular; there are infinitely many particulars
• Premise: One can know an infinity of things by knowing what is said of all of them
• Conclusion: Therefore, the wise man must know what is said of all things (universals)

Argument 2: From Certainty to Universals #

• Premise: The wise man is more certain about what he says
• Premise: One who must consider fewer things is more certain than one who must consider more
• Premise: As one descends from more universal to less universal, one must consider additional things
• Conclusion: Therefore, the man with the most universal knowledge is most certain

Illustration: Knowing “the whole is greater than one of its parts” is more certain than knowing “water is H₂O” because the latter requires understanding many different chemical concepts and empirical knowledge.

Argument 3: From Teaching to Causes #

• Premise: The wise man is most able to teach
• Premise: Teaching is done by giving reasons or causes for why something is so
• Premise: The man who knows the first cause can teach most fully
• Conclusion: Therefore, the wise man must know first causes

Illustration: When asked why terrorists attack, one might answer “because they hate us,” but true teaching requires asking why they hate us, going to the cause of the cause, and eventually to first causes.

Argument 4: From Knowledge for Its Own Sake to Causes #

• Premise: Wisdom is knowledge pursued for its own sake
• Premise: What most enlightens the mind is what most makes us know
• Premise: The cause is what most enlightens and explains effects
• Conclusion: Therefore, one seeking knowledge for its own sake seeks causes, ultimately first causes

Important Definitions #

Wisdom (σοφία/sophia) #

The highest form of knowledge that concerns itself with first causes and what is most universal. It is both theoretical (not practical) and divine in nature. Wisdom is the most certain knowledge because it deals with what must be considered in every case—universals that apply to all things.

The Wise Man #

One who possesses wisdom; characterized by knowing all things in a universal way, knowing difficult things, being certain in his knowledge, being able to teach through understanding causes, pursuing knowledge for its own sake, and directing others toward the ultimate good.

Universale in praedicando #

What is said of all things; a predicate that applies to multiple subjects. Example: “Animal” is said of all dogs, cats, humans. This is universal by being predicated of many, but it does not cause those things.

Universale in causando #

What causes all things; a first principle or cause from which all other things flow. Example: God as the first cause of all being. This is universal in that it stands in causal relation to all things.

Examples & Illustrations #

The Army Analogy #

The structure of an army illustrates the distinction between universal by predication and universal by causation:

• “Soldier” is said of all members of the army (universal by predication)
• The general commands the entire army and is not merely said of everyone (universal by causation)
• These represent two fundamentally different ways of being common to all

The Hierarchy of Certainty Through Examples #

• Certain: Counting the number of students in a classroom (few variables)
• Less certain: Estimating attendance at the Super Bowl (many variables to consider)
• Most certain: Knowing “the whole is greater than its part” (applies universally, fewest considerations)
• Less certain: Knowing “water is H₂O” (requires understanding multiple chemical and empirical facts)

The Descent from Universal to Particular #

As one descends: Body → Living body → Animal → Dog → This particular dog

• As one descends, one adds properties and must consider more factors
• As one ascends, one has fewer things to consider and greater certainty
• This is why wisdom, dealing with universals, is most certain

Material Objects and Their Imperfections #

• A geometrical circle is perfectly circular
• The tire on a car, when weighted down by the vehicle, is flattened at the bottom (not a perfect circle)
• The Earth, theoretically a sphere, is flattened at the poles
• Natural philosophy must account for these material imperfections that pure geometry does not

The Perfect Number Example #

• Knowing “28 is a number” is more certain than knowing “28 is a perfect number”
• A perfect number equals the sum of its proper divisors: 1 + 2 + 4 + 7 + 14 = 28
• To know 28 is perfect, one must consider all its divisors and verify they sum correctly
• To know it is a number requires only basic numerical understanding

Questions Addressed #

How can the wise man know all things if there are infinitely many particulars? #

Answer: The wise man knows all things by knowing what is said of all of them—the universal. Just as knowing “no odd number is even” covers infinitely many odd numbers without knowing each individually, knowing universals allows comprehensive understanding of infinitely many particulars.

Why is the most universal knowledge the most certain? #

Answer: Certainty depends on how many factors must be considered. The more universal something is, the fewer additional properties need to be taken into account, and therefore the fewer variables that could introduce doubt or variation.

What is the relationship between universals and first causes? #

Answer: They are two distinct but complementary aspects of wisdom. Universals are what is said of all things; causes are what explain and give being to all things. Wisdom must know both—the most universal principles (which apply everywhere) and the first causes (which explain everything).