21. First Causes and the Infinity Problem in Causation

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Lecture Notes

Main Topics #

The Problem of Infinite Regress in Causation #

• Aristotle argues that causation cannot extend infinitely in a straight line
• There are four kinds of causes, but causation within each kind cannot be unlimited
• The necessity of a first cause in each order of causation
• Application to all four kinds: mover, matter, form/definition, and end

The Concept of a ‘Moved Mover’ (Caused Cause) #

• A moved mover is something that causes motion (or causation) in another thing only insofar as it is itself moved (caused) by something prior
• A moved mover by definition has something before it and something after it—it is a “middle” thing
• Key insight: A moved mover cannot cause anything if there is nothing before it to cause it
• Whether you have one moved mover or an infinite series of them, the entire concatenation functions as a single moved mover with nothing before it
• Therefore, motion (and all causation) becomes impossible without an unmoved mover (first cause)

The Structure of Middle Things #

• A “middle” thing is defined as having something before it and something after it
• The first cause has nothing before it; the final effect has nothing after it
• The middle derives its causality from what precedes it
• In any causal series, the first is truly the cause, not the middle or the last

Application to Different Kinds of Causes #

• Matter: Infinite downward regression impossible (earth from air, air from fire, etc.); requires a first matter
• Mover: The primary focus; infinite series of moved movers reduces to no motion at all
• Form and Definition: These receive special elaboration in the fourth reading (not fully developed here)
• End (Purpose): If everything is desired for the sake of something else infinitely, there would be no end, no good, no intentional action, and no mind in things

Balance Between Hope and Fear in Philosophical Inquiry #

• The pursuit of truth requires both hope (that truth is attainable) and fear (that error is possible)
• Excessive hope without fear leads to complacency; excessive fear without hope leads to despair
• Different students at different stages require different emphasis: beginners need encouragement; more advanced students need caution
• The example of three teachers (Kusumik, Deconic, and Dion) illustrating different pedagogical approaches
• Aristotle’s strategy in Metaphysics balances these: acknowledging the difficulty of knowing first causes (fear/caution) while demonstrating progress toward them (hope/encouragement)

Key Arguments #

The Argument from Motion (Mover) #

1. Assume A moves B and B moves C
2. B is a “moved mover”—it moves C only because it is moved by A
3. A is the true mover; B and C are not
4. If all things were moved movers, nothing would move anything
5. Whether you have one moved mover or infinitely many, the series is still one grand moved mover with nothing before it
6. Conclusion: There must be an unmoved mover (first cause of motion)

The Argument from Matter #

1. Things come to be from matter (flesh from earth, earth from air, etc.)
2. This cannot regress infinitely downward
3. Conclusion: There must be a first matter
4. Note: Aristotle does not elaborate this extensively because all previous philosophers agreed there was a first matter; the real debate was whether anything else besides matter was a cause

The Argument from End (Purpose) #

1. If A is for the sake of B, and B is for the sake of C, and this continues infinitely, then nothing is an end
2. If nothing is an end, then everything is merely a means
3. If everything is a means, there is no good (since good and end are essentially the same)
4. Without an end/good, there is no intentional action and no mind in things
5. Conclusion: There must be a first end (ultimate purpose) that is desired for its own sake

The Logical Structure of Causes #

• A caused cause has something after it (since it causes something) and something before it (since it is caused)
• A caused cause cannot cause an effect without something before it
• This structure applies equally to all four kinds of causes
• Generalizing: In any order of causation, you cannot have only middle things; you must have a first

Important Definitions #

• Moved Mover (μεταβάλλον κινοῦν): Something that causes motion or causation in another thing only insofar as it is itself moved or caused by something prior; a caused cause
• Unmoved Mover (ἀκίνητος κινοῦν): A first cause that moves or causes other things without itself being moved or caused
• Middle Thing: In a causal series, something that has both a prior cause and a posterior effect
• First Cause: That which initiates a causal order and is not itself caused by anything else in that order
• End (τέλος): That for the sake of which something is done; the ultimate purpose or goal; etymologically related to limit or boundary
• Caused Cause (causa causata): Something that causes something else while itself being caused; a middle thing in a causal series

Examples & Illustrations #

The Train Analogy #

• Engine (unmoved mover) pulls wagons (moved movers) which pull caboose (effect)
• The wagons only pull because they are pulled by the engine
• No matter how many wagons are added between the engine and caboose, they remain “pulled pullers”
• The series of wagons, no matter how long, constitutes one grand moved mover
• To produce motion in the caboose, you must go outside the series of wagons to the engine

The Movie Theater #

• When someone enters a movie in the middle, they experience confusion and puzzlement
• Their mind naturally seeks what came before to understand the present situation
• This illustrates how the middle presupposes something before it
• Similarly, a moved mover presupposes something before it; otherwise, nothing moves

Political Campaign #

• A guy returns from Washington late in the campaign season
• Even the many-times elected candidate can be defeated
• Illustrates the balance of hope and fear in human affairs

Max Born (Physicist) #

• Born was impressed by the great importance of philosophical questions
• But he observed how little progress philosophy had made
• This discouraged him; he turned away from philosophy to physics, where progress seemed more attainable
• Illustrates how excessive emphasis on difficulty (without hope of progress) leads to despair and abandonment of inquiry

Heisenberg’s Belief #

• Heisenberg said he could never believe infinite regression goes on forever in matter
• Referenced in Heisenberg’s book (likely on quantum mechanics or physics)
• Shows that even great physicists sense the logical necessity of a first principle in matter

Notable Quotes #

“If there’s nothing before a moved mover, then nothing moves, right?”

“The whole series is like one grand moved mover. A moved mover won’t move anything if there’s nothing before it.”

“You’ve got to go outside of the category of pulled puller. There’s something before the pull of pullers, and that’s the locomotive, the engine, right?”

“This is kind of overly simple, but easily missed.”

“If everything is a means, and every thing is for the sake of something else, and this goes on forever, then there is no end, is there? Everything’s a means.”

“Wisdom is among those that depend upon experience. But the experience required for wisdom is a foundation in the universal sciences.”

Questions Addressed #

Why must there be a first cause of motion? #

• Because a moved mover (something that moves only by being moved) cannot cause motion if nothing moves it
• An infinite series of moved movers is equivalent to one moved mover with nothing before it
• Therefore, there must be an unmoved mover to initiate any motion

Does the number of moved movers in a series matter? #

• No; whether there is one moved mover or infinitely many, the logical problem is the same
• A series of moved movers, no matter its length, still requires something outside the series to move it
• This applies equally whether the series is finite or infinite

Why doesn’t Aristotle elaborate an argument for first matter? #

• The same argument that works for movers can be generalized and applied to matter
• All previous philosophers agreed there was a first matter (less controversial)
• Matter cannot be the first cause of all things if immaterial things exist (a concern for wisdom, not natural philosophy)
• The real debate was whether anything besides matter was a cause, not whether matter was a cause

How does the concept of ’end’ relate to infinite regress? #

• If everything is desired for the sake of something else infinitely, nothing is truly desired as an end
• Without an end/ultimate purpose, there is no good
• Without good, there is no intentional action and no mind in things
• The word ’end’ (τέλος) itself etymologically opposes endlessness (it means limit or boundary)
• Therefore, an infinite regress of purposes destroys the very concept of an end

How does pedagogy relate to the pursuit of truth? #

• Beginners need encouragement and hope that truth is attainable, or they become discouraged
• More advanced students need caution and fear of error, or they become complacent
• A good teacher knows when to emphasize which virtue
• Aristotle demonstrates this balance by acknowledging the difficulty of wisdom while showing real progress

What role does philosophy play in the hierarchy of sciences? #

• Philosophy (wisdom) depends on experience in a special sense
• This experience is not direct observation (like natural philosophy) but rather the foundation of more particular sciences (natural philosophy, ethics, logic)
• These particular sciences are less universal than wisdom but more particular than simple experience
• Wisdom sees universally what the particular sciences see in a partial way