46. Matter and Form in Sensible Substance

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Lecture Notes

Main Topics #

• Substance Composed of Matter and Form: Sensible substances consist of both matter (underlying subject) and form (actualizing principle)
• Form as Actualization: Form is the principle by which matter becomes a particular kind of thing (man, lion, dog)
• Form Is Not Generated from Matter: Form is not a material part and cannot be made from matter, distinguishing it fundamentally from composite substances
• Accidents Perfect the Subject: Accidental forms exist for the sake of perfecting the substance, unlike substantial form which exists for its own sake
• Proportion as Method of Understanding: Proportion (analogia) is essential for understanding things far removed from each other, including immaterial realities
• Comparison with Platonic Forms: Aristotle disagrees with Plato’s separated forms but recognizes valid insights about immaterial substances

Key Arguments #

Form Is Not Made from Matter #

• If form were made from matter, infinite regress would follow: there would need to be a form of the form to explain difference
• Example: Two words (“cat” and “act”) contain the same letters but different orders; the order cannot be made from the letters themselves
• Example: A wooden chair and wooden table contain the same matter but different forms; the form of the chair is not made from wood
• Therefore: Form must be recognized as a principle distinct from and not generated by matter

Form as Such Is Not Generated or Corrupted #

• When a carpenter makes a chair, he makes the composite but not the form as such
• The form is brought into existence only accidentally, through the generation of the composite
• If form ceases to exist, it does so only through the corruption of the composite, not in itself
• Corollary: Immaterial substances (angels) cannot be generated or corrupted since they are form without matter

Matter and Form as Relatives #

• Not any form can exist in any matter; they must be proportionate to each other
• The form of cooking cannot go into the tools of carpentry; each art has its proper tools and matter
• Each soul has its own proper body; the soul of a man cannot go into the body of a dog
• The pleasure of hearing Mozart differs from the pleasure of seeing a painting; pleasure is not something uniform that can be applied indifferently
• Application: In political philosophy, not every form of government can be realized in every people

Understanding Matter Through Proportion #

• First matter is pure potentiality and cannot be known directly
• It is known through proportion: “First matter is to man and lion as clay is to sphere and cube”
• The likeness consists in the ability to receive different forms
• This method is universal: physics, theology, Scripture, and mathematics all depend on proportional thinking

Important Definitions #

Substance: In sensible things, the composite of matter and form; that which exists by itself and is not in another

Matter (in the genus of substance): The underlying subject that receives forms; pure potentiality; knowable only through proportion to actual substances

Form (Substantial Form): The actualizing principle by which matter becomes what it is; that which makes a thing to be actually what it is; the principle of being

Accidental Form: A form that comes to a subject that is already actually a substance; perfects the subject but does not make it to be simply

Proportion (ἀναλογία/analogia): A likeness of ratios; the method by which we understand things far removed from each other; used to extend a term from one context to another by reason of similar ratios

Relative: Things whose being consists in relation to something else; form and matter are relatives—neither can exist without the other in material substances

Examples & Illustrations #

The Manhattan and Stinger #

• Both have a ratio of 2:1
• Manhattan: 2 whiskey to 1 sweet vermouth
• Stinger: 2 brandy to 1 crème de menthe
• The same formal ratio (2:1) with different matter produces different drinks, showing that form alone does not constitute the whole nature of a sensible substance

The Word “Cat” vs. “Act” #

• Same letters (C, A, T) in different order
• The order is not made from the letters; it is a different principle
• If order were made from letters, two different orders made from the same letters would be impossible
• Demonstrates that form is not a material part

The Wooden Chair and Wooden Table #

• Both made from the same wood
• The fact that they contain the same matter does not explain their difference
• The difference comes from the form, which is not made from wood
• If form were made from wood, the different forms would need another form to explain their difference (infinite regress)

The Carpenter Making a Chair #

• The carpenter makes the composite (chair) but not the form (shape) as such
• The form is brought into existence only accidentally, through the generation of the composite
• If the chair is broken up, the form ceases to exist, but not as such—only through the corruption of the composite
• The carpenter cannot make the form by itself because form is not made from matter

Euclid’s Books of Geometry #

• Books 1-4 develop understanding of particular figures
• Book 5 shifts to the theory of proportions
• Book 6 applies proportions back to triangles and other figures with remarkable power
• Shows the universal applicability of proportion: once you understand the ratio, you can extend it to all similar cases

The Example of a Point and Line #

• Greeks said: point is “one,” line is “two” (two endpoints determine a line), surface is “three,” body is “four”
• Shows that understanding requires grasping the formal principle (the ratio or proportion) not just the matter

Creatures According to Their Nature #

• Body alone (no life)
• Plant: body + vegetative soul
• Animal: body + vegetative + sensitive soul
• Human: body + vegetative + sensitive + rational soul
• Each addition of form creates a new kind of being, showing that form, not matter alone, determines what something is

Notable Quotes #

“In substance, matter is for the sake of what? Form. But with accidental form, you could say accidental forms are for the sake of the subject.”

“Form is not one of the material ingredients of the whole, and the form doesn’t come to be from the matter in the sense that the matter is made into the form.”

“The form as such is not generated, that it’s not made out of the matter, and the form as such is not corrupted.”

“Philosophy and scripture and theology and science, right, are dominated by proportions.”

“The divine substance is a form.” (Boethius, quoted by Thomas Aquinas)

“Not just any form can be realized in just any matter.”

“Form and matter are like relatives. You can’t have just any form and just any matter.”

Questions Addressed #

How can we understand first matter if it is pure potentiality? #

• Resolution: Through proportion. First matter is to man and lion as clay is to sphere and cube. We understand it by seeing how it relates to actual substances—as pure ability to receive different forms.

Is form made from matter? #

• Resolution: No. If it were, infinite regress would result (form of form of form, etc.). Form is not a material ingredient but a distinct principle that actualizes matter.

Can form be generated and corrupted? #

• Resolution: Form as such is neither generated nor corrupted. Only the composite is generated and corrupted. Form may come to be or cease to be only accidentally, through the generation/corruption of the composite.

Why cannot a carpenter say he made the form of the chair? #

• Resolution: Because form is not made from matter. The carpenter makes the composite by arranging matter, but the form itself is not made; it is brought into being only accidentally through the making of the composite.

How do we understand that not all forms fit in all matter? #

• Resolution: By proportion. Form and matter are relatives that must fit together. The art of cooking has its proper tools; the soul of a man has its proper body. Not any form can go into any matter.

What does this principle tell us about immaterial substances? #

• Resolution: Immaterial substances like angels are pure form without matter. Therefore, they cannot be generated or corrupted as such. Each angel is unique (cannot be one of a kind) because there is no matter to create individuation.