1. The Development of Knowledge: From Sensation to Wisdom

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Lecture Notes

Main Topics #

The Natural Desire to Know #

• All men by nature desire to know (Greek: identi—to see, to understand, not merely to know intellectually)
• This natural desire is a sign that knowing is a good—specifically, a natural good for humans
• The principle: the good is what all desire; therefore, knowledge is good
• Aristotle emphasizes “by nature” to distinguish this from conventional desire

The Primacy of Sight Among the Senses #

• Sight is uniquely loved for itself, apart from any practical utility
• Sight reveals more knowledge than other senses because it shows many differences: color, shape, form
• We prefer sight to all other senses (with rare exceptions like a musician who might value hearing)
• Beautiful things—sunsets, rainbows, flowers, roses—are valued purely for seeing them

The Hierarchy of Knowledge Development #

1. Sensation (αἴσθησις): Common to all animals; the foundational act of perception

   • Distinguishes animals from plants
   • Present by nature in all animals

2. Memory (μνήμη): Retention and recollection of sensations

   • Not present in all animals; some act only with regard to what is present
   • Animals with memory (e.g., dogs, cats) are more prudent than those without
   • Memory enables learning; hearing is the sense most tied to learning

3. Experience (ἐμπειρία): The collection and unification of many memories of the same kind

   • “Many memories of the same thing perfect the power of one experience”
   • The experienced person has brought together many singular memories in mind
   • Example: one glass of wine does not make a man of experience with wine; many glasses do
   • Experience is knowledge of singulars, not universals

4. Art/Science (τέχνη/ἐπιστήμη): Knowledge of universals; knowledge of causes

   • Arises from experience by abstracting what is common to many particulars
   • Art and science involve a universal understanding about like things
   • The craftsman who has made many wagons understands the universal principles of wagon-making
   • Example: courage as the universal principle underlying individual acts of bravery

5. Wisdom (σοφία): Knowledge of first causes and beginnings

   • The highest form of knowledge
   • Characteristic of the wise man

Experience vs. Art/Science in Doing and Knowing #

In Terms of Doing (Practical Accomplishment):

• Experience does not differ from art in terms of success; often experience succeeds better
• The man with 30 years of experience in making glasses may accomplish more than someone trained in theory
• A mother who home-schools her children may teach more effectively than a formally trained teacher who knows universals but not the particular child
• A skilled politician with years of legislative experience succeeds better than a professor of political science
• Reason: All doings and makings are about singulars; the doctor cures this particular man, not “man” in general

In Terms of Knowing (Intellectual Understanding):

• Art/science is superior because it grasps causes
• The experienced man knows that something is so (aspirin relieves headaches in Callias, Socrates, Plato)
• The man of art/science knows why it is so (the chemical properties of aspirin)
• Example: tea brewing
  • Experience: leave tea leaves in hot water 3-4 minutes, not 10
  • Science: different chemicals are released at different times; bad-tasting compounds are released after good ones
• Example: wine storage
  • Experience: lay bottles on their side
  • Science: the wine moistens the cork, causing it to swell and create an airtight seal, preventing oxidation
• Therefore: “We think that knowing and understanding belong more to art than experience, and we hold that the artists are wiser than the experience.”

Why Knowledge of Causes is Wiser #

• The sign of knowing is the ability to teach
• The man of experience cannot teach adequately because he cannot explain why
• The artist/scientist can teach because he understands causes
• The chief artist commands the subordinate because he knows the causes and ultimate ends; the subordinate merely follows orders without understanding the whole
• Wisdom is primarily about knowing, not doing; therefore, the man who knows causes is wiser even if the experienced man acts better

Key Arguments #

The Argument for Knowledge as a Natural Good #

1. All men by nature desire to know (observable fact)
2. The good is what all desire (principle)
3. Therefore, to know is a natural good for man
4. The fact that we desire sight for itself (apart from utility) shows this desire is genuine and not merely instrumental

The Argument for the Superiority of Universal Knowledge #

1. Art/science grasps universals; experience grasps singulars
2. All doing and making concerns singulars (this patient, this piece of glass, this piece of legislation)
3. Therefore, in terms of practical doing, experience may succeed as well as or better than art/science
4. However, wisdom consists in knowing causes, not merely facts
5. Art/science knows causes; experience knows only that something is so
6. Therefore, art/science is wiser, even if experience is more practically effective

Important Definitions #

• Identi (ἰδεῖν): Greek for “to see”; when applied to the mind, means “to understand” or “to perceive intellectually”
• Experience (ἐμπειρία): A collection of many singular memories of the same kind, unified into a coherent understanding of what helps or harms in particular situations
• Art/Science (τέχνη/ἐπιστήμη): Knowledge of universals; understanding what is common to many particulars; knowledge that grasps causes, not merely facts
• Wisdom (σοφία): Knowledge of first causes and beginnings; the highest form of human knowledge
• Premium: The proem or introduction to a work that sets forth what will be discussed and why it is desirable (Aristotle’s opening statement: “All men by nature desire to know”)
• Tractatus: The main body of a work that develops the implications of the premium

Examples & Illustrations #

Courage as a Universal #

• A soldier honored in battle for saving comrades’ lives
• A fireman rushing into a burning building to save a child, though suffering burns
• A girl dragging her boyfriend away from a shark attack
• What they share: they act against danger for a good reason—this is the universal principle of courage

Experience in Practical Matters #

• Wine storage: Laying bottles on their side keeps the cork moist and swollen, creating an airtight seal. Experience teaches to do this; chemistry explains why.
• Tea brewing: Experience teaches that leaving tea too long produces bad taste. Chemistry explains that different compounds are released at different times.
• Medical treatment: A doctor with 30 years of experience may treat a patient better than a newly trained doctor who knows universal principles but not the particular patient’s unique situation.
• Steak cooking: Experience teaches how long to cook a steak to achieve the desired result; chemistry explains the process of protein denaturing.

The Chief Artist vs. the Handicraftsman #

• The great wagon-maker who has made many wagons understands the principles of wagon construction
• The apprentice who merely fetches materials follows orders without understanding the whole
• The experienced glasses-maker who has made glasses for 30 years knows what adjustments to make; the new graduate cannot
• The seasoned legislator knows how to persuade colleagues; the political science professor knows the theory but cannot accomplish the deed

Questions Addressed #

Why does Aristotle begin with “All men by nature desire to know”? #

• To establish that knowing is a natural human good, not a mere convention
• To show that this desire is rooted in human nature and therefore serious and worthy of pursuit
• To set the foundation for understanding wisdom as the highest human pursuit

Why is sight the noblest sense? #

• Because it reveals the most knowledge: color, shape, form, and countless differences
• We love sight for itself, not merely because it helps us accomplish practical tasks
• We can see distant heavenly bodies (the sun, moon, stars) that other senses cannot reach
• The example of beautiful sunsets, rainbows, and flowers shows we value sight purely for knowing and appreciating beauty

How does experience differ from art/science? #

• Experience is knowledge of many singulars of the same kind; art/science is knowledge of universals
• Experience tells us that something is so; art/science tells us why
• Experience may succeed better in practical doing; art/science is wiser because it knows causes
• The experienced doctor may treat a particular patient better than the theoretical doctor; but the theoretical doctor understands the underlying physiology

Can a man of experience succeed better than a man of science in practical matters? #

• Yes: experience does not differ from art “as far as doing is concerned”; often experience succeeds more than those having reason without experience
• Reason: all doing and making are about singulars; the doctor cures this man, the craftsman makes this thing
• A man with decades of practical experience often accomplishes more than a theoretically trained novice

Why is knowledge of causes wiser than mere experience? #

• The sign of knowing is the ability to teach
• The man of experience cannot fully teach because he cannot explain why
• The man of art/science can teach because he understands causes
• Wisdom is primarily about knowing, not doing; therefore the man who knows causes is wiser even if the experienced man acts better

Pedagogical Observations #

Berquist employs concrete, everyday examples to illustrate abstract philosophical principles: wine storage, tea brewing, steak cooking, and medical treatment. He draws on personal experience (his grandmother’s hospitalization, a neighbor’s bird-loving habits, his own experience with cats and chickens) to make philosophical points vivid and memorable. He frequently poses questions to students and draws their answers out through dialogue, engaging them in active thinking rather than passive reception.