3. Wisdom, Causality, and the Characteristics of the Wise Man

Subscribe in Podcast App | Download Transcript

Lecture Notes

Main Topics #

The Six Characteristics of the Wise Man #

Aristotle identifies six things by which we recognize the wise man:

1. Knows all things in some way - through knowledge of universals that cover many particulars
2. Knows difficult things - things furthest from the senses, most remote from sensation as the starting point of knowledge
3. More certain in knowledge - understands with greater precision and distinctness
4. Able to teach and give causes - can explain why things are so, not merely that they are
5. Commands and rules others - wisdom belongs properly to those who order and direct
6. Knowledge is for its own sake - pursued not for practical results but for understanding itself

Experience vs. Wisdom #

The wise man differs fundamentally from the man of mere experience:

• Experience knows that something is so but does not know why
• Wisdom knows the cause - the explanation of why it is so
• The cause explains the effect; the effect cannot explain the cause
• The ability to teach is the sign distinguishing true knowledge from mere experience
• Example: A doctor may experience that certain treatments work; a specialist knows why they work

Universal Knowledge and Causality #

Two distinct but related universalities:

• Universale in causando (universal in causation): the first cause extends its causality to all things under it
• Universale in predicando (universal in predication): the universal that is said of many things
• The king’s causality extends to all citizens; the general’s causality extends only to soldiers
• The more universal in causality corresponds to the more universal in predication
• Wisdom seeks the most universal causes and the most universal predicates (being and one)

Wisdom and Ordering #

From the Latin sapientis ordinari - it belongs to the wise man to order:

• Reason is perfected by knowing order; wisdom is the highest perfection of reason
• The wise man directs all other arts and sciences because he understands the ultimate ends and causes
• Logic is close to wisdom because it directs us in the use of reason itself
• The chief scientist rules over subordinate scientists by knowing the end for which things ought to be done

Certainty in Wisdom #

Although wisdom concerns difficult things, it achieves a kind of certainty:

• Knowledge of first causes and axioms provides the highest certainty, though their objects are most difficult to know
• The axioms are most certain because they are known distinctly in their proper sense
• More universal knowledge is more certain because it requires consideration of fewer things
• Arithmetic is more certain than geometry (the one has no position; the point has position)
• Geometry is more certain than natural science; natural science more certain than ethics

Wisdom Pursued for Its Own Sake #

Wisdom is distinguished from practical knowledge:

• Understanding and knowledge pursued for their own sake belong to knowledge of the most knowable
• The man who desires to know for itself will most desire what is most knowable - the first things and causes
• Other things are known through first causes, but first causes are not known through things under them
• What is most known to us may be least knowable in itself; what is furthest from the senses is most knowable in itself

Key Arguments #

Why the Wise Man Knows All Things #

• Through universal knowledge, which is said of many things
• Some universals are said of an infinity of things (e.g., “no odd number is even”)
• By knowing the universal, one knows in some way all things placed under that universal
• Therefore, the wise man knows all things by knowing the most universal causes

Why Wisdom Requires Knowledge of Causes #

• The experienced person knows that a treatment works but cannot teach why
• A specialist is wiser than a general practitioner because more certain about causes
• Teaching requires knowledge of causes, not mere experience
• The hierarchy: sensation → memory → experience → universal knowledge → wisdom

Why Ruling Belongs to Wisdom #

• The one who knows the cause is wiser than one who merely knows the fact
• The chief artist knows the cause of the cause; the craftsman merely follows orders
• Therefore, the wise man, possessing the highest knowledge, properly commands others
• The ruler need not receive orders but gives them; the wise man persuades others through superior knowledge

Why the Most Universal Are Most Difficult to Know #

• The senses know the singular; wisdom knows the most universal
• The further removed from sensation (the starting point), the more difficult to know
• Yet these most universal things (substance, quantity, quality, act and potency, being, one) are furthest from sense perception
• Philosophers rarely agree on these fundamentals because they are so difficult to grasp

Important Definitions #

Wisdom (σοφία / sophia) #

• Knowledge of first causes and beginnings (ἀρχαί / archai)
• The highest perfection of reason
• Distinguished from mere knowledge or experience by its universality and attention to causes
• Pursued for its own sake, not for practical utility

Universal (καθόλου / katholou) #

• That which is said of many things
• More knowable in itself though less known to us initially
• Covers many particulars through knowledge of fewer principles
• The pathway by which one knows in some way all things

Cause (αἴτιον / aition) #

• That which explains why something is so
• Distinguishes the wise man’s knowledge from mere experience
• The end or telos is itself a cause—the cause of all other causes
• Knowledge of causes is what makes teaching possible

Universale in causando #

• The universal in causation; how a first cause extends to all things under it
• The king’s authority extends to all citizens; the general’s only to soldiers
• Distinguished from universale in predicando but connected to it

Universale in predicando #

• The universal in predication; that which is said of many things
• Corresponds in hierarchy to universale in causando
• Being and one are the most universal predicates

Examples & Illustrations #

The Doctor and Specialist #

• A general practitioner suspects illness but is uncertain about the diagnosis
• He calls in a specialist who is more certain about what is wrong
• The specialist is wiser precisely because more certain about causes
• Certainty marks wisdom in every science

The King, General, and Army #

• The king commands the general of the army
• The general’s causality extends to those who are soldiers
• The king’s causality extends to all who are citizens
• “Citizen” is more universal than “soldier” - shows how first causes relate to more universal predicates

MacArthur and the Inchon Landing #

• The chief of staff and navy were opposed to the plan
• Everyone doubted it could succeed
• MacArthur, through superior knowledge and judgment, saw what others could not
• When execution proved successful, all agreed he should command
• The wise man rules not because persuaded by others but because he sees what others miss

Heisenberg and Niels Bohr #

• Young Heisenberg attended Bohr’s lecture (the “Bohr Festival”)
• Bohr had reputation of knowing more about the atom than anyone
• After the lecture, Bohr invited Heisenberg for a walk
• That walk determined Heisenberg’s entire way of thinking about the atom
• Shows how encounter with a truly wise man shapes one’s philosophical development

Einstein and Bohr’s Debate on Quantum Theory #

• Einstein used thought experiments to attack the Copenhagen interpretation
• Bohr refuted each attempt; Einstein made one final attempt
• Bohr discovered overnight that Einstein had failed to apply his own theory correctly
• Bohr refuted Einstein, and Einstein never challenged publicly again
• Illustrates the wise man’s ability to see what others cannot

The Potato in History #

• Historian’s insight: the potato enabled German population growth
• This population became the basis for the Prussian army
• Without the potato, the military strength for war would not have existed
• Shows how understanding causes reveals hidden connections in history

Questions Addressed #

How does wisdom differ from mere knowledge or experience? #

Wisdom not only knows that something is so but knows why it is so through understanding causes. The experienced person knows facts; the wise person knows causes. The ability to teach distinguishes wisdom from experience.

Why is the wise man said to know “all things in some way”? #

Through knowledge of universals, which are said of many things, the wise man knows in some way all particulars under those universals. The most universal knowledge covers the greatest multitude of particulars.

What is the relationship between universal causation and universal predication? #

The first cause’s universality in causation (extending to all things under it) corresponds to the universality of what is most universally said of things. The king’s causality extends to all citizens; citizen is more universal than soldier. This connection is subtle but essential to understanding wisdom as knowledge of first causes.

Why are the most universal things most difficult to know? #

The senses perceive singulars most easily. The further removed from sensation, the more difficult for human knowledge. Yet what is most universal (being, one, substance, act and potency) is most knowable in itself, though hardest for us to grasp. This is why philosophers rarely agree on fundamentals.

Can wisdom achieve certainty despite dealing with difficult things? #

Yes, because the wise man knows axioms and first principles distinctly in their proper sense. Though their objects are difficult and most remote from sensation, knowledge of causes provides a kind of certainty superior to experience.