3. The Hierarchy of Goods and the Supreme End of Man

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Lecture Notes

Main Topics #

• The Hierarchy of Arts and Goods: When one art commands another art, the end of the commanding art is superior to the end of the subordinate art; their goods are correspondingly ordered
• The Problem of Infinite Regress: If everything is desired for the sake of something else, nothing would ever be worthwhile; therefore, there must be a supreme end desired for its own sake
• Political Science as the Master Art: Because the political art commands all other practical arts (military, household, medical, etc.), it must aim at the supreme good of man
• The Common Good Superior to Private Good: The good of the whole (city) is superior to the good of the part (individual or family); acting for the city’s good is more godlike than acting for private advantage
• Government’s Role in Virtue: The state properly encourages virtue and discourages vice, though this is often neglected in modern politics

Key Arguments #

The Infinite Regress Problem #

• If A is desired for the sake of B, B must be desired before A can be desired
• If B is desired for the sake of C, C must be desired before B or A can be desired
• If this chain continues infinitely, one would always need to desire something further before desiring anything at all
• Therefore, an infinite regress makes all activity meaningless and impossible
• Conclusion: There must exist some end desired for its own sake, not as a means to anything further

The Subordination of Arts Through Their Ends #

• The Medical Art and Pharmacist: The pharmacist’s art is subordinate to the medical art; the doctor prescribes, the pharmacist obeys; medicine is desired for the sake of health
• The Violin Maker and Violinist: The violin maker’s end is to make a good violin; the violinist’s end is to play well; if a defect appears in use, the violinist commands the maker to correct it, showing the violinist’s end is superior
• The Military Art and Political Science: MacArthur states “In war, there’s no substitute for victory,” but victory itself is ordered to the preservation and good of the city; therefore, the political art commands the military art
• General Principle: One can argue from the fact that one art commands another to the conclusion that its end is superior; conversely, if one good is subordinate to another, the art pursuing the higher good commands the art pursuing the lower good

Why the Political Art Commands All Other Arts #

• The government authorizes all other arts and sciences: education, medicine, military service, even baking and construction
• The president is commander-in-chief; the military operates under political authority
• Universities are chartered by the state to grant degrees; teachers operate under state authorization
• Because the political art commands all other practical arts, its end must be the supreme good of man

The Common Good Superior to Private Good #

• Thomas Aquinas: “The common good is better than the private good because the whole is better than the part”
• It is “worthy of love” to bring happiness to one man, but “more beautiful and godlike” to achieve it for a nation and cities
• God acts for the good of the whole universe; when humans act for the good of the city, they imitate divine action more perfectly than when acting for family or self
• The good of the city is the proper end of political science, and government should direct citizens toward this common good and toward virtue

Important Definitions #

The End (τέλος, telos) #

• “That for the sake of which” something is or is done
• In subordinate arts and goods: one end is desired as a means to a higher end
• In the supreme end: desired for its own sake, not for the sake of anything further

The Commanding Art #

• An art whose practitioner directs the practice of another art
• Example: the doctor commands the pharmacist; the violinist commands the violin maker
• The commanding art pursues a higher end than the arts it commands

The Common Good vs. Private Good #

• Common Good: The good of the whole (city, nation, universe)
• Private Good: The good of the part (individual, family)
• The common good is inherently superior because the whole is superior to its parts

Examples & Illustrations #

The Medical Art and Pharmacist #

• The doctor prescribes; the pharmacist prepares the medicine according to prescription
• Health is the end of the medical art; medicine is the end of the pharmacist’s art
• Medicine is desired for the sake of health, showing the subordination of the pharmacist’s art to the medical art

The Violin Maker and Violinist #

• The violin maker’s immediate end is to make a good violin
• The violinist’s end is to play the violin well and produce music
• The music is the final end, the violin is the instrument for that end
• If the violinist discovers a defect while playing, he commands the maker to correct it, demonstrating that the violinist’s end (playing well) is superior to the maker’s end (making the instrument)

The Military Art and Political Science #

• Cavalry training at West Point: the art of riding is subordinate to military operations; military operations are subordinate to the defense and good of the nation
• MacArthur’s statement: “In war, there’s no substitute for victory” treats victory as the end, but Berquist argues victory is actually ordered to the preservation of the city
• The government (political art) commands the military (military art) because the city’s good is superior to military victory

Government Authorization of Arts #

• Teaching: The state authorizes colleges to teach and grant degrees; the government could remove this authorization or redirect teachers to military service if needed
• Medical Practice: Doctors are licensed by the state; the government can revoke licenses for incompetence or misconduct
• Construction: Carpenters must follow building codes set by the government regarding pipe size, wood quality, foundation depth, etc.
• Cooking and Baking: The government inspects restaurants and bakeries for sanitation and safety
• Driving: Citizens are licensed by the state to operate vehicles

The Household Art and Marriage #

• Marriage is regulated by nature (natural inclination of man and woman), by the city (to produce new citizens), and by the Church (to bring new members to the mystical body)
• The government has authority to make rules about who can marry and at what age because citizens are necessary for the city’s continuity
• Historical example: banns of marriage were published to prevent fraudulent marriages; special licenses were required to marry without banns, and financial bonds held family members responsible

The Father’s Authority #

• A father tells his son to sit in a seat and remain there until permitted to leave; the son obeys with deference
• Later, when the son receives a credit card, the father co-signs and says simply: “You pay your bills”—this practical wisdom teaches responsibility without force
• This shows how the household art uses both persuasion and a degree of force (authority) to direct children toward virtue

Engineering and Design Iteration #

• Farm wagons: Berquist’s father (an engineer) made wagons and tested them on experimental farms; if the steel snapped under use, he redesigned to use more steel, resulting in superior wagons (Grain King brand)
• Early aviation: The history of flying machines shows repeated failures, redesigns, and improvements until a functional aircraft was achieved
• Rockets: Similarly required multiple iterations and corrections based on actual performance
• Principle: When defects are discovered in use, the designer commands changes to the manufacturing process

Notable Quotes #

“In war, there’s no substitute for victory.” — MacArthur, regarding the military art (though Berquist argues victory is subordinate to the city’s good)

“It is better and more perfect to achieve and preserve that of the city. For it is worthy of love when done for one man only, but it is more beautiful and godlike when done for a nation and the cities.” — Aristotle, on the superiority of the common good

“God acts for the good of the whole universe. We can’t do that, right? But when we act for the good of the whole city, we’re more godlike than when we act for just the good of our family.” — Berquist, illustrating how the common good reflects divine action

“The end of this science must embrace, must be superior to, those other sciences. So that this will be the good of man.” — Berquist, explaining why political science commands all other practical sciences

“Men do evil whenever they can.” — Aristotle, in the Rhetoric, on why fear of being in the power of another is justified

“All park rups.” — A sophomore Berquist knew, justifying his abuse of power over a freshman, illustrating how even small power corrupts

Questions Addressed #

Must There Be a Supreme End? #

• The Problem: If everything is desired for the sake of something else, an infinite regress results, making all activity impossible and meaningless
• The Solution: There must be some end that is desired for its own sake, not as a means to further ends
• Why This Matters: Without a supreme end, A would not be worthwhile until B is achieved, B would not be worthwhile until C is achieved, and so on infinitely—but if we must always desire something further, we could never actually desire or achieve anything
• Conclusion: A final end exists that is desired for its own sake and for the sake of which all other things are desired

How Do We Know Which Art Commands Which? #

• By Observation: When one person commands another person in the practice of an art, the commanding person’s end is higher
• By Reasoning About Ends: If we know that one good is subordinate to another (medicine is for health), we can infer that the art pursuing the higher good commands the art pursuing the lower good
• Example: The political art commands all others because government has authority to authorize, regulate, or restrict any other art; therefore, the political art must pursue a higher end than any of them

Why Should Government Regulate Marriage? #

• Natural Reason: Marriage is founded on natural inclination (procreation)
• Political Reason: The city needs new citizens to survive and flourish; marriage produces these citizens
• Ecclesiastical Reason: The Church regulates marriage to produce new members of the mystical body of Christ
• Therefore: The government has legitimate authority to make rules about marriage, age of consent, and witness requirements

Why Does the Modern Government Fail in Its Proper Role? #

• The Problem: Modern governments have lost sight of directing citizens toward virtue and the ultimate purpose of man
• Historical Shift: Governments expanded beyond the city-state for economic and military reasons, losing focus on their proper end
• Evidence: Political candidates, when asked about the purpose of man, reply “It’s above my pay grade,” showing they do not understand the end they are supposed to serve
• The Solution: Politicians should study ethics (Nicomachean Ethics) to understand what the end and purpose of man is, so they can direct citizens toward it

Pedagogical Notes #

Berquist employs concrete examples from everyday experience to illustrate abstract philosophical principles:

• Personal family stories (father’s authority, credit card lesson)
• Professional examples (carpentry, engineering, farming)
• Historical references (King Alfred, Boethius, Shakespeare, Churchill, MacArthur)
• Current institutional examples (Assumption College, West Point, licensing)

He also uses Socratic questioning, pausing for student responses and building on their answers to develop the argument collaboratively.