1. Structure of Moral Theology and the Seven Virtues

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Lecture Notes

Main Topics #

Why Particularity in Moral Philosophy #

• The Problem: Universal speeches are less useful because actions are in particulars (Aristotle)
• Example from Geometry: Universal truths like the Pythagorean theorem apply to all right-angled triangles, but moral action requires particular, concrete direction
• Thomas’s Solution: Must consider virtues and vices in their specific manifestations and circumstances
• Four-fold consideration structure:
  1. The virtue itself
  2. Corresponding gifts of the Holy Spirit (if applicable)
  3. Opposing vices
  4. Related precepts and commands

The Seven Virtues Framework #

• Three Theological Virtues: Faith, Hope, Charity (directed toward God as end)
• Four Cardinal Virtues: Prudence, Justice, Courage, Temperance (“cardinal” from cardo = hinge)
• Ordering principle: Consider virtues together with their opposing vices, gifts of Holy Spirit, and precepts

The Four Human Powers and Cardinal Virtues #

Powers involved in moral action:

1. Reason → Prudence (practical wisdom)
2. Will → Justice (rendering what is due)
3. Irascible Appetite → Courage (facing difficult goods and evils)
4. Concupiscible Appetite → Temperance (moderating simple desires)

Why four cardinal virtues? Because there are exactly four powers that concern our actions; each hinge virtue perfects one of these powers.

The Eleven Passions (Emotions) #

Concupiscible Appetite (from epithumia) - 6 passions: Arise from something being simply agreeable or disagreeable to the senses

• Regarding good objects:
  • Amor/Dilectio (love, liking)
  • Desiderium (desire, wanting)
  • Gaudium (joy, pleasure)
• Regarding bad objects:
  • Odium (hatred, dislike)
  • Fuga (aversion, avoidance)
  • Tristia (sadness, pain)

Irascible Appetite (from thumos) - 5 passions: Arise from something being difficult to obtain or avoid

• Spes (hope) - regarding difficult good if attainable
• Desperatio (despair) - regarding difficult good if unattainable
• Audacia (boldness, daring) - regarding difficult evil if avoidable
• Timor (fear) - regarding difficult evil if unavoidable
• Ira (anger) - when present evil can be resisted

The irascible appetite is named from anger (ira) because it is the most manifest of these emotions.

Key Arguments #

Why Descend to Particulars? #

• Universal moral principles alone are insufficient for guiding action because actions occur in particular circumstances
• Contrast with geometry: Geometrical truths are universal and sufficient because they concern abstract, unchanging objects
• Moral action requires particularity: Must know how virtues apply in specific situations, to specific persons, with specific objects

Structure of Virtue Treatment #

• Four things considered together for each virtue:
  1. The virtue itself and its nature
  2. Gifts of the Holy Spirit perfecting it (if any)
  3. Opposing vices, classified by their proper objects/matter
  4. Affirmative and negative precepts related to the virtue and vice
• Advantage: More concise and efficient than treating each element separately; avoids repetition

The Concupiscible and Irascible Appetites Explained #

• Concupiscible passions are simple: determined merely by whether an object is agreeable or disagreeable to sensation
• *Irascible passions involve difficulty: arise when there is an obstacle to obtaining desired good or avoiding undesired evil
• Importance: Understanding these emotional movements is essential for understanding how virtues (especially courage and temperance) moderate human behavior

Important Definitions #

• Cardinal (cardo): Hinge; the four cardinal virtues are the “hinges” on which all other virtues turn
• Concupiscible Appetite (epithumia in Greek): The power of sense desire responding to simple pleasure and pain
• Irascible Appetite (thumos in Greek): The power of sense desire responding to difficulty in obtaining or avoiding something
• First Truth: God himself, the formal object of faith—the light by which all articles of faith are believed
• Material Object vs. Formal Object: Material object of faith = all the things we believe about (God, Christ, sacraments, creatures in relation to God); Formal object = first truth (God) by which we assent to all beliefs

Examples & Illustrations #

Concupiscible Emotions in Daily Life #

• Personal example - Salmon: Berquist dislikes salmon. When offered it at a restaurant, he avoids it if possible (dislike/hatred), but if forced to eat it politely, he experiences sadness (tristia). In contrast, he always ordered steak and French fries because he liked them (amor), desired them (desiderium), and enjoyed them (gaudium).
• Simple pattern: Like it → want it → enjoy it. Dislike it → avoid it → feel sad when forced to have it.

Irascible Emotions with Difficulty #

• Courtship scenario: A young man sees an attractive woman. He desires her (concupiscible), but many other men also do. If he thinks he can succeed, he experiences hope and makes effort. If he realizes other men are more charming/handsome, he falls into despair and gives up.
• Athletic example: Before a football game against a superior team, players experience difficulty. Hope that they might win motivates maximum effort. If they are being dominated, despair sets in and they give up.
• Aesop’s Fable - Sour Grapes: Fox sees grapes he wants (concupiscible desire). They are hard to reach (difficulty). He despairs of getting them, so rationalization sets in: “They’re probably sour anyway; I wouldn’t want them.”
• Physical resistance: Someone steps on your toe, causing pain. If you think you can do something about it, you get angry (ira) and respond. If you think you cannot stop them, fear mixed with helplessness results.

Musical Representation of Emotions #

• Mozart uses minor keys (D minor, C minor) to represent sadness and anger
• Mozart uses major keys for joy and hope
• Key changes in compositions mark emotional transitions (hope to despair, despair to hope)
• Compositional reasoning: Unlike Haydn (who changes keys “for variety”), Mozart’s key changes reflect the emotional logic of the piece

Notable Quotes #

“Universal speeches are less useful in that actions are in particulars.” — Aristotle, cited by Thomas

“It is not only necessary to say universally what is virtue, but also to adapt it to special things, to singular things.” — Aristotle/Thomas on moral knowledge

“In speeches which are about things to be done, the universals are more empty, and the particulars are more true.” — Aristotle, cited by Thomas

“We announce to you eternal life, which was with the Father and appeared to us… that you might have society with us, and our society is with the Father and with his Son Jesus Christ.” — 1 John 1:2-3, cited in Vatican II’s Dei Verbum preamble

“By hearing might believe, by believing might hope, by hoping might love.” — St. Augustine, De catechizandis rudibus, cited in Vatican II’s Dei Verbum

Questions Addressed #

1. Why must we descend from universal moral principles to particular virtues? Because actions occur in particulars, and universal speeches are less useful for actual moral guidance. Just as geometry provides universal truths that suffice for that science, moral philosophy must provide particular guidance for particular actions.

2. Why are there exactly four cardinal virtues? Because there are four powers in the human person involved in moral action: reason, will, irascible appetite, and concupiscible appetite. Each cardinal virtue perfects one of these powers.

3. Why are they called “cardinal” virtues? Cardinal comes from cardo (hinge). These four virtues are the hinges upon which all other virtues and moral behavior turn.

4. How should we treat virtues systematically? By considering four things together for each virtue: (1) the virtue itself, (2) corresponding gifts of the Holy Spirit, (3) opposing vices, (4) related precepts. This is more efficient and avoids repetition.

5. What is the difference between concupiscible and irascible emotions? Concupiscible emotions arise from something being simply agreeable or disagreeable to the senses (six emotions total). Irascible emotions arise from difficulty in obtaining a desired good or avoiding an undesired evil (five emotions total).

6. Why is the irascible appetite named from anger? Because anger (ira) is the most manifest and obvious of the irascible emotions.

7. Why does Thomas treat theological virtues before cardinal virtues? Because the theological virtues (faith, hope, charity) direct us to our ultimate end (eternal life) and affect how we practice the cardinal virtues. These virtues have God as their object and thus function as the crown and perfection of moral life.